Skip to main content

Full text of "Journal Of The Anthropological Institute Of Great Britain And Ireland Vol.26"

See other formats 


GOVERNMENT OF mOIA 


DEPARTMENT OF ARCHAEOLOGY 

CENTRAL ARCHAEOLOGICAL 
LIBRARY 


Call No. 

vwl 


Z6 






THK 


JOURNAL 


OF TUF. 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 

OF 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


VOL. XXVI. 


512 - 05 
J R-A T 


LONDON; 

fUSLISUSD FOR 

f be Antbrnpologtra! fnstilitte of ©rent Britain anb ?telai!b. 

BT 

KEG AN PAUL, TRENOH, TRUBNER k CO., 
CHARING CROSS ROAD. 

All Mights Reserved, 

1897. 



C ENTR L A RC : i A EOLOG!GA'<» 
library, NlW DELHI. 

ACC. i.. 0. . • . ... .W. . . . •>.... M. 



Ali I-' ' - ' 

LO> DON ; 

BAHBISO E0>s. PEIMIKS in OEDIN^ET TO HEK MAJESTF, 

ST. MAKTI>;'s LA>E. 



CONTEXTS. 


PAGE 

I. Some Xotes on Euinecl Temples in Maslionaland. By Robert 

M. W. S\vA>' 2 

II. Some Account of the Shan? and Hi’.l Tribes of the States on 
the Mekong. B_y Colonel E. O-. AVoodthorpe, C,B., 


III. Customs and Su]-er'!jl i- i.' in f!'c Huldands of C* t'tr Japan. 

By the Eev. Matter Weston, M.A., F.R.G-.S,, late 
British Chaplain, Rohe, Japan [AhAractj .. .. 21' 

IT. On Unusual hunus of Buxnal by People of the Bast Coast of 

Borneo. By C. V. CEFAGn, Ks.^ 33 

V, The Cave Dwellers of Perak. By L Wrat, Jr, M I.K h , 

F Z S., Curator Perak Museum and State Goulogj^t . . 3d 

yi, A Preliminary Xotiee of the Luehuan Languai^e By Basil 
Hall Chamberlain, Emeritus Protessor of Japanese and 
Philoioiiy in the Imperial University of Japan .. .. 47 

yil. Ou the Oldest Stone Implement? in the Eastern United 

States. By Daniel Ct. Bki.M'ON, M D., LL.D. .. .. 50 

TUI. The Cranial Charaererurics of the South Saxons ci.ini>ured 
■witli these of some of the other race? of Soutii Britain. 

By E. G. IIORTON-SiiXTH, B.A., Scholar of St. John’s 
College, Cambrulge . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 

IX. A:i Unpublished Butak Civjfb a heac a B_\ c M. Px.lyte 103 

X. An Account of ?oijie .Skulls discveivd at Brandon, Sutiolk. 

By Charles S. Myers, B A., -Sliuttlewvrth Scholar of 
Gonville and Cauls College. Cambridge .. .. .. 113 

XI, Social Lite m Fanti-huid. By E. M. Connolly . . . . 123 

XII. Xotes on Australian .'^hiohU, more [Mrtieularlv the Ih-uu* 

iiuiiig. By R. EiHERiDGCj Juu. {Curator of the Austra- 
lian Museum. Sydney) .. .. .. .. .. 153 

XIII. Xiiga and Other Frontier Tribes of Xorih-Last India. B} 

Gertrude M. Godden .. .. .. .. 161 

XIV. On a Remarkable Ancient Bow and Arrows 'U‘.,eved te be of 

Assyrian Origin By Henry BALrorii. iM. A .. .. 210 

XV. Foul’ Huron kVumpum Reconl-« : A Study of Ab.'rmmal 
Amenean History and Mnemonic Symbols By Horatio 
Hale, M A. (Harvard), F.R.S . Canada. Author of 
*’ Etimography and Pliiiology of the U.S. Exploring Ex- 
pedition/’ " The Iroquois Book of Rites,” 6cc. . . . . 221 


IV 


CONTENTS. 


PA&S 


XVI. The Hale Ser-e^ of Huron TVampuin Belt^. (Notes and 

Addenda.) Bt Professor £. B. Tylok, D.C L . F.H.S. . 248 

XTII. The INri'lieiiiaus in Greece and Italy. By Professor Oscae 

ilo'TElirs .. .. .. •• •• •• •• 254 

XVIII. Pre-riassieal Chronology m Greece ami Italy. By Professor 

OSCAE MoA’TELirs . . . . . ■ : . . . . ■ 261 

XIX. The Bui'bung of the TViradthuri Tribes. j^ParL 11 j By 

K. H. ilAiHEWs, L.S. .. .. .. .. .. 272 

XX. An Account of Skulls from Madagascar in the -VuatouiiLal 

iluseuin of Cambridge University. By \V. Lacheyce 
Heyhy Duckivoeih, B.A., Fellow ot Jesus College .. 285 

XXI. On the Transition from the L se of Copper to that of Bronze 

By Dr. J. H. Gladstose, F.E.S. .. .. .. .. 311 

XXII. The Keeparra Ceremony of Imtiation. By E. H. ilAi'HBWs, 

L. S , Corres. Memb. Autlirop. Inst, of Great Britain . . 320 

XXIII. Life History of an Aghori Fakir ; with an Exhibition of the 

Human Skull used by him as a Drinking Vessel, and 
Notes on the similar use of Skulls by other Kaces. By 

SeysT BALEorE, M.A 340 

XXIV. Ethnographical Notes in New Georgia. Solomon Islands. 

By Lieutenant Botle T. Someeville, Eoyal Navy . . 357 

Annual General Meeting .. .. .. .. •• .. •• TIS 

Annivei-sary Address . . . . . . . . . . . . • ■ ■ • 416 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA AND NEW 
BOOKS. 


Vocabulary and Grammatical Notes on the Laimiiiige of Makiira, Central 
New Hebrides. By Sidsey H. Ray, Memb. Antbrop, Inst, of 
Great Britain and Ireland . . . . . . . . . . . . 67 

Notices of Books, &c. . . .. .. .. ,, .. .. .. 73 

Notices of Books, &c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 

Aboriginal Goldsmiths' Work 111 Colombia. By C. H. Reau .. .. 294 

Note on a Moriuri Skull, from VVaitangi West, Cliathaiii Islands. Coilected 
by Mr. J. W. Wileiaiis, presented to the British Museum by Sir 
A. WoLLAsiox Fkasks. K.C.B., F.R.S, By W. H. Flower .. 295 

Notices of Books. &c. .. .. .. .. . 296 

Communication. By J J. Aikiasuy ., . . .. 433 

Songs and Specimens of the Language of New Georgia, Solomuu Islands. 
Collected by Lieutenant B. X. Someeville, R.N. ; with an Intro- 
ductory Notice of Melanesian and New Guinea Songs. By Sidney 
H. Rat . . . . . . . , , . . , , , , , , ^ 436 

Native Dyes and .Methods ol Dyeing lu Korea. By F. B. Laadis. M.U. 453 
Notices of Books, &c. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 45^5 



CONTENTS. 


V 


ILLUSTRATIOXS. 


to face page 

\ ^ 


IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 
XV 

XXXI. 

XXXII. 

XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV, 

XXXVI. 

XXXVII. 


PLATES. 

I" Plan of Ruin on Lotsaui EiTer . . 

I. ,, ,, in llatloutsie Camp 

L ,, „ near Semalali 

II. Ruin on Linchwe le Komo Hill 

f Map showing Position of Ruins on Msingwan River 
Plan of Temple at Limcli River. . . . . . . . . . I 

III. -I Vertical Cross Section of Walls of Temple at the Lundi River }■ 
Elevation of Decorated part of Wall of Temple on Lundi 1 
River 

Two Young Men from the Western Shan States 
Three Coffins from the East Coast of Borneo 
Australian Shields 
Queensland Shield 
Mao Xaga Men and Xaga Women 
“ Assyrian ” Bow 

Pgyptian Bow, and Egyptian and .Assyrian Arrows 
► Huron Wampum Belts .. 


J 

Chiefs telling the Wampum 
to XXX. Vases, ie., found in Greece and Italy 
Photographs of Skulls . . 

Main Camp and Keeparra Ground 
Drinking and Libation Vessels . . 

Baked-clay and painted figure of the goddess Lhamo. 

figure of Kali. Carved ivory figure of Kali 
“ Kumiti ” making Fii'e . . 

Xative of Xew Georgia Playing the “ T/iTe Irirtt " 
Two Xatives of Xew Georgia 


Bronzi 


13 

33 

155 

15S 

161 

220 

220 

221 

221 

261 

286 

340 

357 


412 


BLOCKS. 


Musho Woman Weaving a doth . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 

Fig. I. Xo. 736 of the Brandon skrdls . . . , . . . . . . 1 

., II. A varietv ot the Grave-Row Type . . . , . . 1 

• •'1 * * V 1 

.. III. No. 760 of the Brandon Still]? .. .. .. j 

,, IV. The Batavian ’ type .. .. .. . .. ..j 

-Shield made of Wood .. .. .. .. .. ]60 

Section of Bow. . . . , . . . . , . . . . . . . 213 

Wampum Beads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248 

Iroquois Bark-house . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . 251 

vSniall 8tont) Model found in the Kepublic of Colombia (New Granada) 294 
Tibetan Inscription .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 354 



VI 


CONTEXTS. 


PAoi 

N’ative wearing Sunshade .. .. .. -• .. .. 3G! 

The Xatives of New Georgia . . .. .. .. .. .. 364 

Canoe House, NIunggeri, with small ** House ” containing a Skull in 

foreground . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . 36*. *■ 

Frame of Canoe .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 37C^ 

Xatire with Canoe, showing '* Totoisliii ■’ .. .. .. .. .. 372 

Specimens ot Xative Drawings. I. Shark Fishing .. .. 37t> 

Ditto Ditto II. a. h. e. Three Frigate-biixls 

{^heUiiia) ; d. Frigate-bird with Man’s head {Kirirln ) ; e. Man 
with Frigate-bird’s head (ATi^vaX-o) .. .. . .. .. 

“ Olowotu,” Sacred Islet .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 392 

Bov Playing Flute . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 395 

Man Poising Spear .. .. .. .. .. .. .. -ICO 

Prepared Head. Rubiana. New Georgia .. .. .. •• 4-12 

New Caledonian Drill . . .. .. .. .. .. •• .. *133 

Peniviau Vase . . .. .. .. .. .. .. .. .. 135 

MUSIC. 

New Georgian War Dance .. .. .. .. .. 307 

A Favoiu'ite Song .. .. .. .. .. SOS 

Jew*’9 Harp Song .. .. ., ,. .. .. .. 398 

Burnett River Corroborec . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436 



THE JOUENAL 


OF THt 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 


or 

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND. 


Februarv 11th, 1896. 

E. W. Beabeook, Esq., F.S.A,, President, in the Chair. 

The Jlinutes of the last ileeting were read and signed. 

Various presents were announced and thanks voted to the 
respective donors. 

The elections of Sliss M. E. Verb Gust and Mr. O. F. 
Ricketts were announced. 

The Rev. J. 0. Bev.vx, M.A., F.S.A, exhibited a skull which liad 
been found at a depth of about 8 feet below the surface, not 
far from the banks of the River Wye, at a point somewhat below 
the city of Hereford, where drainage operations were in progress. 
The other parts of the skeleton had been dispersed by the work- 
men. There were no implements or ornaments recovered. 
There was a doubt whether the spot where the skull was found 
had been covered by the course of the river, three or four 
hundred years ago or so. Dr. Garson said the skidl belonged 
to a female : it was of a good type, strongly brachyceplialic, and 
not earlier than the Bronze Age. 

The Rev. .1. 0. Bevan also e.xhibited a knife which had been 
found on Tuesday, .Tan. 14th last, with eight skeletons, in the 
course of certain fencing operations carried on in the parish of 

VOL. XXVI. ® 



*> 


E. M. \V. Swan. — Some Notes o'n 


Alfriston, near Berwick, Sussex. He showed, too, a map of the 
district, with photographs and a sketch plan, together with a 
meniorandurii from the Eev. J. W. Beyiion, Nucar of the parish, 
who had uncovered tlie find. Tsvo femora and portions of three 
skulls, which had likewise been sent for exhibition, had 
unfortunately miscarried. The remains were unearthed near 
the summit of a hill overlooking tlie village. There were 
seven skeletons in a row, about 4 feet apart, lying E. and W., 
and another, about 21 feet S.E. of the easternmost. They lay 
in the chalk, the mould being about si.x or eight inches thick, 
the next stratum immediately upon the bodies — locally called 
challice — being a kind of brown mixture, partly soil, partly 
stones, and having no productive powers. In addition, there 
was discovered a small bit of jet or amber, with two holes, 
half drilled through : and a small piece of glass, the upper edge 
being smooth and rounded. The ground thereabouts was tested, 
but no other remains were ascertainable. The find seems clearly 
to be of Saxon origin. Such is the declared opinion of Sir 
John Evans, and of Hr. Read, Secretary of the Society of 
Antirpiaries. 


The following papers were readi ; — 

“ Discovery of the Stone Age in Somaliland.” By H. W. 
SETON-K.tttE, Esf[. (See vol. xxv, p. 271.) 

“ Some Xotes on Ruined Temples in Mashonaland.” By 
Robep.t M. W. Swan. 


Sorae XoTF.s oa Ruined Te.mples 'ui Mashoxaland. 

By Robert TI. W. SwAX. 

[with plates i-iii.] 

There are remains of very many temples of the Zimbabwe 
style in Mashonaland and ea.stern Bechumaland, and in 
describing some which I have vi.sited in the past few months 
I will refer to the accompanying maps and plans. 

Xumbers I and II are situated in South latitude 22° 39' 42", 
and East longitude 28° 10' 4.5" ; and about 800 yards from the 
left bank of the Lotsani river at its coiiHuence with the Limpopo 
river. These ruins stand on two little knolls of diorite, which 
presents a rough broken surface ; and they are about 200 
yards apart. Like Zimbabwe they are built of little blocks of 
granite which are laid in level courses. I was unable to make 



Jof/rnil of' the AnfhropoIon>cnl Insf tfnfe. T ol. f /. T^ote T, 


a A 



\<> I 

PiAx OF Rriy oy i.0T«ANr nirFR 
S. iat. 22^ :3;V 42", K Utvr 10 4^ 

Scale 1 incli to 20 feet 

G IS centre of arc F f. 

A is apparent position of sun when setting at winter solstice as seen 
from Ct. 

e c e c are slot* for bars 

Heiirhf of wall is marked in feet and mrlies. 

Broken red litie'* show radii wtnch were measured. 



piA>' OF BFiy jy >rAKi,orT'?iE 
CAMV 

Xo. ILL 

Scale 1 inch to 40 feet 


f 



I 


PLA>' OF sriy >'EAS SEMAEAir. 

Xo. IX. 

Scale i inch to 40 feer. 






Jo’irnal of the Anthropoloij^i'nl hist itvte. hoi JCXI'l. Plate III. 





a 


ilAP SHOWING POSITION OV 
KUINS ON ’ilsr.NGWAN RIVEE 

Scale V inch to 1 mile. 




L’LW or RL'IV ON '.M^I.NOWAN 
KIVPK. 

No XLU 

Seale 1 ineli to ^'O feet. 



Xo XT I 
Scale 

Drauizht-boai cl decoration extends from K 
to R 

HerritiL^-bone decoration extends from K 
to E. 



VEUTTiAr CBO'S SFCTION OF W.VT.LS OF 
lE.MPLB AT lilE LUNDI RIVEE. 

Scale 1 inch to 10 feet. 


r 



XVI 


ELEVATION OF UECOR \Tt E> PART op WALL 
*'F ILMTEL UN n VI-I KI\rU. 

>cale 1 ii'fli to 4U incht*'. 


1 



Buined' Teynples in Ma-ihonaland. 


3 


a plan of both of tlieni, as one was much overgrown by bush, so 
I devoted the few hours at my disposal to making a careful 
plan of No. I. As will be seen from a glance at the plan the 
outer wall consists of a single curv^e, and this curve is most 
•carefully executed on the outer face of the wall. I found that 
the centre of this eur'^'e was at G, and I measured the various 
radii shown on plan by stretcliiiig a measuring tape from G over 
the top of the wall to a plumb line suspended over the outer 
line of the base of the wall. With the e.vception of the irregu- 
larity between a and f, which is due to the rough nature of the 
ground, the curve is extremely accurately executed. The 
radius of the curve measures 54 feet, being 10 cubits x tt, 
which is equal to the circumference of the great tower at 
Zimhabwe, or to the diameter of the circular temple on the 
Lunde river. 

The ends of the wall at E and Fare rounded and well tinished, 
and there is no evidence that it ever extended beyond these 
points; the extremely rocky nature of the ground behind G 
renders it almost certain that the temple never was a complete 
enclosure. 

I found that I could not orient the temple with the compa.ss 
as the magnetic needle was deflected by some mineral matter in 
the vicinity, so I used a sextant. Situated at G I observed the 
sun set a little to the left of a, and in about a line with the side 
of the doorway. This observation was made on July 9th last, 
and allowing for the sun’s decrease in amplitude, due to its 
decrease in declination since the June solstice, I found that at 
that solstice it would set about 30 minutes of arc south of the 
centre of the doorway. This 30 minutes probably represents 
approximately the decrease in amplitude due to decrease in the 
obliquity of the ecliptic since the time when the temple was built, 
but its exact amount is too uncertain to enable us to found a 
date argument on it. It does, however, seem quite clear that it 
was intended that the line G A should point to the sun setting at 
the .solstice, and we have here an indubitable in.stance of a dour- 
way being placed between the centre of a curve and a solstitial 
sun.set. It seems also fairly certain that the temple to which 
this doorway helong.s was never a complete enclosure, and 
consisted mainly of a single curved wall forming a comparatively 
■small arc of a circle. 

Tlie position of the doorway at B is not so easily explained. 
It may have been used to observe the setting nf a .star, or to 
mark an angle; for the various angles marked l)y e, B and F, 
and b}' the meridian seem to have liad some meaning. 

The second temple was obviously oriented in a similar way to 
the sun setting at the December solstice. The radius of its 



4 


E. M. W. Swan. — Same Azotes on 


curve seemed to be 169-3 feet; but, as I have said, I was unable 
to make an accurate plan of it. It seems certain that it also 
was never a complete enclosure. 

Temple No. Ill is .situated about 300 yards from the hospital 
in the camp of the Bechuanaland Border Police at MakloutsL 
Like the preceding it stands on a little knoll of diorite, from 
which a clear view of the setting sun can be obtained. Here 
shapely blocks of granite have not been obtainable for building, 
and the builders, as in all these temples, have abstained from 
using a single block of bewn stone ; so they have built this 
temple of small blocks of various shapes, and they have not 
been successful in preserving the regularity of the courses of 
masonry. The Makloutsi temple consists of two curves with a 
doorway between them (v. Plan III.) The ends of these walls 
are broken at b and c, and it is now impossible to say where 
they terminated, but it is fairly certain that this temple was 
never a complete enclosure. 

It is impossible to deduce any evidence of solstitial orientation 
from what has yet been recovered of the plan, but it seems 
possible that ihe middle point of the cun'e A c, may have been 
aligned betw een the centre D and the sun rising at the northern 
solstice. 

The radius of the curve A B is 34-34 feet, being 20 cubics, 
or twice the diameter of the great tower ; and of a c 27 feet, 

or half the circumference of that tower — 10 cubits x 

Euin No. IV consists of a few remains of walls on a little 
granite hill near the right bank of the Shashi river, just above 
its confluence with the Semokwe river. It is impossible to 
recover any plan of these walls. 

Euins Nos. V and VI are situated on two little kopjes among 
the Lipokole hills. They are both well built of little granite, 
blocks like Zimbabwe, but they do not seem to be allied to it in 
plan. Yet they are superior in style to any Kaffir building 
which I have .«een. One wall carries a dentelle decoration like 
that on the great tower, but it is not oriented to the sun. They 
are composed of a series of walls, generally straight, but some- 
Lmes ciiived, circling around small, but easily defended hills. 
These walls .seem to represent several defensive lines. One wall 
across a little ravine must have been about 15 feet hi"h and 
10 feet thick. 

Euin No. \ II is situated on Zabna hill, from which is obtained 
a clear view of the horizon. All that now remains are two 
curved lines ot fallen stone with apparently a doorway between 
lem. I liad not leisure to lay bare tlie foundations and 
recover the plan, but from the position of the temple, aud the 



Huiiied Temples in Mashonaland. 5 

apparent nature of its plan, I have no doubt that it is a temple 
of the Zimbabwe people. On thi.s same hill are also remains of 
another temple, and it was doubtless built by the same people. 

No. VIII may be described in the .same words as No. Vi I. 
None of these temples ever seem to have been complete en- 
closures. 

No. IX, about three miles east of Semalali. is an interesting 
little temple, although now the walls are only about a foot 
high. It is another instance of two curved walls forming a 
temple. It stands on a little hill with a clear view of the 
horizon, and is built of rather shapeless little blocks. Wherever 
these temples occur, in positions where it has been impossible to 
get well shaped stones, more care has been taken in following 
the curves, and in this temple the curves are executed with 
great regularity, especially the curve c n, where the limit of 
error is not more than li inches, and even this error is wholly 
due to the irregular shapes of the stones. The radius of c d is 

17T7 feet, or 10 cubits, and of d e 27 feet, or 10 cubits x ^ 

The centres A, B, and the doorway are all on the same meridian 
line. The ends of the walls at c and E are undetevmiued, but 
it seems tpiite clear that the temple was always open towards 
the north. No evidence remains of an observance of the 
solstices. 

No. X stands about a mile southwards of the last described 
on a flat topped hill known as Linchwe le Komo, from which a 
distant view all around the horizon may be obtained. With the 
exception of Zimbabwe, it is the largest temple of the sort which 
I have seen in the country. The greater part of it has been 
built with extreme care of somewliat unpromising materials. 
Stones of several kinds have been used, as bits of trachytic 
lava and altered sandstones. Great care has been taken in 
selecting the stones, and the regularity of the courses is well 
preserved. The three principal curves are all extremely 
accurately made. The curve c D has a radius of 34-o4 feet, or 
20 cubits ; while the curves n M and E H have both a radius of 
54 feet, or 10 cubits x tt. The wall apparently ended about 
C, and there seems no doubt that the temple was always open 
towards the south. I could find no evidence of solstitial orient- 
ation. 

I excavated two mounds situated about 150 feet to the south 
of the temple. They both yielded gieat quantities of what 
seemed to be wood ash with some panly burnt charcoal, bones 
of animals, fragments of coarse and fine pottery, a fragment of a 
plain ivory bracelet, and several of the little discs of pottery which 
seem to have represented the sun, and which we found in great 



6 


E. M. W. Swan. — Some Notes on 


quantity at Zimbabwe. Tbe line pottery was made of well ground 
material, was well formed and carefully burnt ; but it was all 
broken in small fragments. 

Xo. XI .stands on a rock on the left bank of the Shashi river 
about a mile above Fort Tuli. Most of tbe building as it now 
stands is obviously of Kaffir workmanship, ami the Kaffirs there 
now have a story regarding its origin. But the lower portion 
of the southern wall is certainly of different workmanship from 
the rest, and it is built on a circular curve, having a radius of 
54 feet. A doorway seems to have been placed between the 
centre of this curve and the sun rising at the Southern Solstice. 

Xo. XII is some ruins near the Ipagi river which have 
suffered so much from rebuilding that it is impossible to make 
any regular plan of them. From some peculiarities in their 
appearance I fanc}' that here were some temples of the Zimbabwe 
style. 

On many of the little hills along the banks of the Umsingwani 
river are remains of stone walls. Many of these were doubtless 
built by Kaffirs, and many are rebuildings of older structures. 

In Xos. XIII, XIY and XV we have indubitable evidence 
of the Zimbabwe people’s handiwork. In Xo. XIII the walls of 
older temples have been made to form part of the enclosing 
walls of Kaffir .strongholds. D E is carefully built on a well 
drawn curve. It has its centre at P and a line from f pafssing 
midway between D and e will point to the sun setting at the 
southern solstice. B c is another well built curve with its 
centre at a. The radius of B c is 17T7 feet and of d e 27 feet, 
or equal to the diameter and semi-circumference of the great 

tower respectively : (10 cubits and 10 cubits x 

I revisited the temple on the Lundi river which we saw last 
journey, and in its neighbourhood I found remains of two others. 
This temjffe is one of the most complete which 1 ha\ e yet seen 
in this country, and I was glad that 1 could find time to make a 
conipdete pdan of it. It stands on a little knoll about half a 
mile south of the waggon road and 300 yards east of the river. 
Like Zimbabwe it is built of little rectangular, naturally shaped 
blocks of granite which are laid in very regular level courses. 
1 nlike Zimbabwe, the corners of the doorways are only slightly 
rounded, and inside the finely built wall is another wall built of 
coarse unshajiely blocks, which are not laid in courses, but which 
are still somewhat carefully put together. From the fact that 
some of the stones of the outer wall rest on the inner wall, it 
seems probable that Iroth walls were built at one time. I care- 
fully measured the circumference of the temple and found it to 
oe 169 feet 6^ inches (after deducting 4 inches for the protuber- 



Ruined Temples in Mashonaland. 


7 


ance e f) or almost exactly 17‘17 feet x tt^ (10 cubits x tt^). I 
also found that at no point did the foundations of the temple 
diverge more than a few inches from a true circle. 

The protuberance e f resembles one shown at F in Plan X. 
Its curve has a radius of about 8 feet 6 inches. It is carefully 
constructed and is bounded at e and F by vertical lines in the 
masonry. 

In our rough and hastily sketched plan made in April, 
1891, we made the distance between the doorways too great. 
During our last visit we were able to fix the centre lines of the 
doorways, and to carefully measure the distance between them. 
This distance we found to be 60 feet 8^ inches (after making 
our deduction for e f), and therefore the angle N F M measures 
128° 51'. In tlie latitude of the temple and with the present 
oblicpiity of the ecliptic the sun’s azimuth when rising at the 
northern solstice is 64° 48' 30", so that the angle x p m is 46' 
less than double this angle. We took the bearing of the line 
p X very carefully with a good prismatic compass several times 
in both directions and found it to be as nearly as we could 
make it true north and south. It would therefore seem that the 
arc X E Ji was intended to face the sun when rising at the 
northern solstice, but there is this discrepancy of 46' or about 
4| inches of shortness in the arc to account for. But if sve 
assume a reasonable antiquity for the temple, we will ha\e an 
increased obliquity in the ecliptic wdiich will account for this 
23' of difference in the sun’s bearing on the horizon at the 
solstice. We have further evidence of this increased obliquity 
in the temple on the Lotsani river which has been described. 

We made a careful examination of the disposition of the 
ornamentations on this temple, and found that neither rhe 
herring-bone nor the draught board pattern ever extended 
beyond the doorways. The top of the wall near both doorwmys 
is somewhat broken, but there is good reason to believe that 
the draught board pattern extended from within a short distance 
of one doorway to within a similar distance of the other, while 
the herring-bone started at the same point as the draught 
board near the northern doorway, and terminated about 18 
inches to the north of E. Here its termination is clearly 
marked. 

1 revisited Zimbabwe and had the pleasure of seeing some of 
the gold beads, gold tacks, and thin sheet gold washed out of the 
surrounding soil. The quantity of gold thus found in the soil 
was surprising. The most interesting object obtained was a 
very small fragment of a red pigment on which was a decora- 
tion of the herring-bone kind in gilt ; this was so extremely 
finely w'orked that to see all its details one had to use a magni- 



8 


B. M. W. SwAS . — Some Notes ooi 


fying glass. This work can only have been done by people who 
had acquired great skill in goldsmith's work. 

I was sorry to find the great temple so filled with a jungle of 
castor oil plants and other quick growing shrtibs that it was 
impossible to make any measurements without first clearing the 
ground, and this I had not time to do. I made an observation 
to determine the bearing of the stone on the hill from the door- 
way of the great temple, and found that the west end of the 
stone bore 9 minutes east of north. Since our last visit Sir 
.Tohn Willoughby had made extensive excavations in the great 
temple and on some surrounding moimds, but he had been 
rather unfortunate in his selection of sites for excavation. I 
saw the considerable number of things which he had found, but 
none of them casts any fresh light on the builders, and they 
were all, with unimportant exceptions, duplicates of what w'e 
had already exhibited. His excavations do abundantly prove 
that there had been many successive periods of building at 
Zimbabw'e, and that there is a deep accumulation of d4hris in 
the great temple. 

From what I have said it will be seen that, along the 250 
miles or so of road between the Lotsani and Lundi rivers, I 
have visited about 20 temples, or other remains of the people 
who built Zimbabwe. Quite possibly these are not aU the 
remains that still exist along the narrow strip of country which 
I examined ; but admitting that I have seen all within a mile 
on both sides of the road, and that the strip of country traversed 
is a fair sample, as regards ruins, of this part of Africa, it is 
evident that the number of ruins of this class in the whole 
countrj^ between the Zambesi and Limpopo rivers must be 
enormous. Besides, these existing remains do not represent all 
the temples which once stood in the country, for all over it one 
finds walls which are almost reduced to shapeless heaps of stones, 
but which occur in positions which Kaflirs would not seek to 
fortify, and where they would not care to build their huts, and 
many of these heaps of stones probably once formed temples of 
the Zimliabwe people. The great number of buildings of this 
sort which must once have existed in the country would indicate 
a numerous population of the builders, and the great extent of 
country over which they spread themselves would argue a pro- 
longed residence. 

'The great number of the buildings is borne out by what I 
have seen in other parts of the country, and in some short 
excursions which I have made around Salisbury, I have seen 
the foundations of many more temples. Between here and 
Hartley Hills I found remains of two buildings, but I had 
nothing with me to enable me to make a plan of them. On a 



Buined Temples in Mashonaland. 


9 


little ridge about 20 miles E.N.K of Salisbury, I also found 
some walls, and on a level space near the ridge the foundation 
of a circular enclosure with apparently two doorways. The 
circle seemed very true, but I had no instruments with which to 
measure it accurately. I paced its diameter and found it to be, 
as nearly as I could judge, the same as that of the temple on the 
Lundi river. 

On Mount Hampden are many remains of stone walls and 
also signs of Kaffir habitation. I measured one complete circle 
and found its radius to be 20 cubits, or equal to that of curve A B 
on Plan III, or c D on Plan X. On some little hills about a mile 
from the left bank of the Gwiwi river, and on the road to the 
Mazoe river, I found remains of five temples, and those which I 
had time to measure fitted into our system. The ridge which 
forms the crown of the watershed between Salisbury and the 
Gwiwi river is an excellent position for observing the sun 
rising and setting on a distant horizon, and here these temples 
had existed in great numbers. I counted ten in a walk of about 
a mile, and some which I measured were built on the Zimbabwe 
plan. One circle had exactly the diameter of the great tower. 
All of them, however, require to be disencumbered of dihris 
before accurate and complete plans can be made, and I was not 
able to undertake this work. Some showed evidence of solstitial 
orientation, and some did not. Near the Jesuit Station, which 
is a mile and a half from here, I also found remains of many 
temples. I measured three, and they all corresponded in mea- 
surement to other work of the Zimbabwe people. On a hill 
farther on I found four temples of the same sort, and one little 
crescent of rough stones carefully oriented to the sun rising at 
the northern solstice. In fact these temples are so numerous 
in this part of the country that one might safely undertake to 
find a hundred of them within ten miles of Salisbury. 

To a casual observer the supposition that the Kaffirs had built 
all these temples might .seem probable enough, and the appear- 
ance of man\' of the ruins at present would give colour to such 
a supposition, for the foundations of many of the temples are 
under walls of Kaffir building. These walls are extremely 
roughly built and only roughly follow the lines of the curves, 
but the original plan can generally be recovered by removing 
the Kaffir superstructure. What has happened is this. The 
Kaffirs are continually shifting the positions of their towns, and 
where they settle on a spot where there are remains of walls 
they pile up the fallen stones in order to form an enclosure 
which may serve them as a cattle pen or for other purpose. In 
parts of the country where the Kaffirs do not live the nature of 
the ruins is at once more obvious, and it is much easier to make 



10 


K. M. W. SWAX. — Some Notes on 


plans of the temples. Enins I to X are in this condition. I 
do not fancy that anyone will affirm that any of the tribes now 
Ihdng anywhere near Mashonaland can ever have had even the 
small knowledge of geometry and astronomy which wms necessary 
to the planiung of these tempdes. But besides the method of 
their plans, the positions whicli tliey occupy is a preliminary 
guide as to whether any ruin may he Kaffir or not ; for these 
buildings almost invariably command a view of the sun either 
rising or setting on a fairly distant horizon. The sites of Kaffir 
towns are always chosen, not for observing the sun, but with 
regard to their prroximity to water, or good land, or for defensive 
jiiirposes. The^e conditions the Zimbabwe builders disregard. 
They prefer to build on little gently sloping knolls which are 
hardly more easily defended tlian a position on the plain itself, 
and sometimes they build in very arid parts of the country 
where it is almost impo.s.silHe to obtain water, as is witnessed by 
many ot the temples between Makloutsie and Tuli. 

I have throughout tins paper used the word temple in a some- 
what wide sense, and many of these buildings which consist of 
only a comi.aratively short arc of a circle can hardly be called 
temples in the ordinary meaning of the word. Many of them 
possibly had a resident body of priests attached to them, and 
may have been meeting places for the community which took 
part in the perfoimance of religi<ms ceremonies, but many others 
such as the oriented crescent which I mentioned, should rather 
be regarded as simply leligious symbols of reverence erected by 
solar and phallic worshippers. 

The diffeience in form of the tempdes in this part of Mashona- 
laiid, aud of the southern temples near the Limpopo river, is 
worthy of notice. It is evident from eight of the temples which 
I examined that the prevailing southern type is a single wall 
built on one or more curve.s, but not forming a cornpdete enclo- 
sure ; whcieas the northern temples are generally if not always 
complete enclosures, formed often of one curve. This would 
seem to show a slight dih'erence in the cult, and the difference in 
cult may have indicated a ditference in tlie pirineipal industry of 
the pjeople. Certaiidy there is a wide difference in the soil and 
geological lorination or the two clistrict.s, for here the country is 
fairly fertile and is auriferous ; hut the country between 
Makloutsi and Tuli is certainly nut feitile and has not yet been 
proved to be auriferous. If there wa.s ever any doubt certainly 
recent discoveries at Zimbabwe seem to prove that its builders 
came there for gold, and yet we find temples of the same style 
in a country where there seems to be iro gold. The onl\' sug- 
gestion I can offer is that they went to the latter country for 
precious stones. The country there is generally composed of 



Ruined Temples in Maslwnctlcind . 


11 


freestone, traversed by trap dykes, and in the altered freestone 
occur crystallized quartz minerals of many kinds, and sometimes 
these are of considerable beauty. Many of the precious stones 
mentioned in the book of Revelations are found there. 

I must protest against the supposition that these temples are 
of Phcenician origin, for certainly both in their plans and 
masonry they are quite unlike anjdhing which we know of that 
is Phcenician. If the temples at Hagiar Kim and the Xuraghs 
of Sardinia have any connection with Zimbabwe, they are rather 
ignorantly constructed copies of the Zimbabwe style than the 
original type of that style. The Phoenicians attached to Pharaoh 
Necho’s e.xpedition may have admired Zimbabwe and tried to 
copy the style. I trust that Mr. Bent during his present visit 
to the Hadramaut may find buildings of the Zimbabwe type 
there, and so settle the c|uestion of the origin of the builders of 
these temples. 

Sal isb u ry, Mashonalu nd, 

December, 1803. 

Postscript.— Since making the above notes about three 
years ago, I have travelled much in Maslionaland and seen the 
remains of many otlier edifices of tlie Zimbabwe class. Most of 
these, however, were not of any considerable size. The fact 
that these ruins e.xist in such great numbers in that country, 
and that generally they are of small dimensions and often seem 
never to have been complete enclosures, indicate strongly that 
they were not temples in the ordinary meaning of the word, 
but simply religious symbols, analogous in tlieir purpose to our 
crosses and wayside shrines, and that they were erected not as 
places of assembly for worship, but merely to betoken reverence 
to the objects of worship. This reverence is shown by the 
solstitial orientation of plain or decor.ited arcs of circles, or of 
doorways, and it also seems to have been e.xpressed by the 
geometrical con.struction of the plans of the edifices. There is 
ample evidence in other records of ancient furms of worship to 
show that religious sentiment was frequently e.xpressed by the 
orientation of religious edifices, and the less modern of some of 
our own churches illustrate this. That geometrical construction 
was also a feature of religious buildings is shown by some 
edifices in other countries, and the manner in which it was used 
by at least one race is clearly' set forth in tlie ancient Brah- 
minical Sulvasutra«. 

Regarding the geometrical construction of the Mashonaland 
ruins, I would refer to what I have written in a chapter of Mr. 
Bent’s “ Ruined Cities of Mashonaland,” without reference to 
which the above notes will not be altogether intelligible. The 



12 E. M. W. Swan. — Savie Notes on Ruined Temples, &c. 


measurements of the ruins on wliich much of what I said there 
was based, have been amply confirmed by the measurements of 
many ruins which I have made since that book was written, 
and most of these measitrements are given in the above notes. 
The plans of temples which I have drawn from these measure- 
ments seem to show that one of the main features in their geome- 
trical construction was the determination of the lengths of the 
radii of the curves, and that the factors which determined these 
lengths were the ten cubit measure (or simple multiples of it), 
and the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter. 
Had there been only a small number of examples of the 
apparent use of radii measured by these factors, the above 
assumption might be doubtful, and it might be supposed that 
the whole thing was a coincidence ; but because the evidences of 
this construction are so numerous, it seems that there is hardly 
a possibility of error in the conclusion that the builders of the 
ancient Mashonaland temples had constructed the plans of their 
buildings in the manner supposed. It might also be assumed 
that because I have had a very large number of ruins from 
which to select, that those may have been rejected as of 
Kaffir origin, which did not agree with the above theory of 
oonstniction. But against this assumption it should be noted 
that most of the ruins from which the measurements on which 
the tlieory rests have been obtained, show other features beside 
the geometrical construction such as oriented arcs and doorways, 
which clearly distinguish these ruins from Kaffir work, and 
connect them with the Zimbabwe builders. 

Glasgow, 2nd May, 1896. 

Mr. Lf.wis hoped that, as the subject was of great and far- 
reaching importance, the Author would give them the fullest 
evidence in his posse.ssion as to the use of the structures lie had 
described as temples. At first sight only one of the diagrams 
shown came up to anything like the ordinary idea of a temple, 
the others being mostly mere curved walls facing certain points. 
The evidence derived from so many facing in the same direction 
was of course very strong, but the great number of them in a 
small space might be held to be an objection to their use as 
temples. Exception had been taken on that ground to the use 
of the Aberdeenshire circles as temples, these latter were no 
doubt primarily sepulchral, but there was a very old and strong 
local tradition concerning them that they had also been places 
of heathen worship. He would be glad to know whether there 
was any evidence of burial in connection with any of the 
remains described by Mr. Swan. He understood that most of 
them faced not the rising but the setting sun. The most com- 






Col. E. G. Woobthorpe. — Sortie Account of the Sha7is, &c. 13 


plete appeared to have an opening to the north, which might be 
a survival of pole-star wor-ship transplanted to the southern 
hemisphere (where it would be useless, like many other 
survivals) by a race going from the north. Many of the British 
circles had a well-marked reference to the north. The Great 
Zimbabwe appeared to him to present a considerable resem- 
blance in plan to Hagiar Kim in Malta, W'hcre Dr. Inman had 
found evidence of phallic and solar worship (detailed in “ Anthro- 
pologia ”), but such similarity as there was might be due rather 
to a similarity of thought and civilisation than to a community 
of origin. 


March IOtii, 1896. 

E. W. Br.abook, Esq., F.S.A., President, hi the Chair. 

The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and confirmed. 

Various presents were announced and thanks voted to the 
respective donors. 

The elections of Messrs. C. J. Pkaetorius and Egbert 
Elliott were announced. 

Col. E. G. Woobthorpe gave an account, illustrated by 
specimens and with the optical lantern, of the Shans and the 
Hill Tribes of the States on the Mekong. 


Some Account of the Shans and Hill Tribes of the States on 
the Mekong. By Col. E. G. Woobthorpe, C.B., E.E. 

[with plate IV.] 

I CANNOT, in this paper, introduce you to any hitherto entirely 
unknown peoples or countries. Many well known travellers 
and writers have been to this part of Indo- China, and have 
described the people they found there. I need only mention 
.such great names as Gamier, Pavie, Lefevre, Poutalis, Prince 
Henri d’Orleans, Otto Elders, J. G. Scott, Lord Lamington, 
Captain G. J. Younghusband, &c., to show in what distin- 
guished footsteps I tread. Still this corner of the world is not 
so generally known as it deserves to be, not only because 



14 


Col. E. Gt. Woodthorpe. — Some Accovnt of the 


England and France have now become limiteophes there, hut 
also because of the wonderful congeries of wild tribes, differing 
from each other completely, in manners, customs, and language, 
who make up the mass of the population of these hills. Ko- 
where else, perhaps, can he found such a variety of tribes, such 
a mixture ot languages. 

The Shan States under British protection form the eastern- 
most portion of our Burmese possessions, and may he said to lie 
approximately between the 19th and :14th parallels of latitude 
and the 9bth and 102ud of longitude. They do not, however, 
bv any means cover the whole of the area included between 
these parallels, luit, presenting a broad base towards the Irawadi, 
narrow down considerably towards the east, forming a rough 
triangle. To the west lie the great plains of Burma proper, 
traversed by the Irawadi. To the north and east we have the 
province of Yunaii, with the Chinese Shan districts of Mbng 
Lem and Keug Hung immediately on our borders. To the south 
are the Karen Hills and Siam. 

These states present a remarkable variety of natural features. 
The country to the west of the Salween is a series of elevated 
plateaus — great rolling grassy douns separated by deep valleys 
and intersected by lofty parallel ranges, the general direction of 
which is north and south. These ranges, in contrast to the 
yellow downs, are beautifully wooded, and attain to great 
heights, some of the peaks rising to nearly 9,000 feet above sea 
level ; the general elevation of the jdateaus being from 3,000 to 
.5,000 feet. Along the vaEeys flow swift rivers, now through 
dark and narrow gorges, pent between mighty clift's, now 
through alluvial hollows with terraced rice fields, among which 
they wind with many a curve. To the east of the Salween the 
country is much broken up ; no clearly-defined range of moun- 
tains presents itself, but the eye wanders over a confused sea of 
forest-clad hills and narrow valleys, relieved here and there 
only by small oases till Keng Tung is reached, with its large 
plain, beyond which the mountains rise again, range upon 
range, in tangled masses to the IMekong. East of the Mekong 
similar features present themselves, fiat fertile valleys or 
terraced u]ilarrds, lying amid intricate mazes of hills, the 
drainage systenr of which i.s the despair of the srrrvevor. 

A striking feature in the esterrr Shan States is the Iirle 
Lake, on the easterrr .shores of which the military station of Fort 
btedman stands, lort Stedinan was also formerly the principal 
civil station for the Sorttherii Shau States, brrt the Civil portion 
has been moved to a healthier site at Taunggyi, some 2,000 feet 
higher, and Fort Stedman will probably soorr' be abandoired by 
the military also. 



Shans and Hill Tribes of the States on the Mekong. 15 

The Inle Lake is a vast expanse of water, 13 miles long and 
about 4 miles wide at its upper end, but narrowing towards the 
south. It is nowhere very deep, and the bottom is overgrown 
with long and tangled w’eeds, which rise nearly to the surface. 
The lake dwellings of the Inthas, an amphibious tribe said to 
have been originally brought as slaves from the province of 
Tavoy, rise on piles out of the water in groups near the edge, 
and floating gardens, on which are grown tomatoes, water melons, 
gourds and the pan leaf vine, dot the surface of the lake 
around them. Many large villages are seen on either shore ; 
monasteries and pagodas, built on the extremities of the spurs, 
running into the lake, are reflected in its placid depths. 

The method of rowing adopted by the Inthas is peculiar’. 
Men and womeir are equally exp^r-t. They stand, one at the 
bow, the other at the stern of the boat. The row er holds the 
padille lightly in one hand to guide it, and balancing himself on 
one leg, he w’orks the paddle with the other by hooking his foot 
round the upper portion of the blade. They complicate matters 
further by frequently carrying a spear in the hand not occupied 
with the paddle, wdth which they transfix any passing fish. 
Their de.xterity with both spear and paddle is remarkable, and 
they supply all the bazaars in the neighbourhood with fish. 

Mr. Pilcher tells us that the Shans, or “ Tai ” as they call 
themselves, are the most extensively diffused, and probably the 
most numerous of the Indo-Chinese races. Lapping the 
Burmese round from north-west, they are found from the 
borders of Manipur (if the people of that valley have not been 
indeed themselves modified by Shan blood), to the heart of 
Yunan, and from the valley of Assam,* to Bangkok and 
Cambodia : everywhere Buddhists, everywhere to a considerable 
extent civilised, and everywhere speaking the same language, 
with little variation ; a circumstance very remarkable amid the 
infinite variety of tongues that we find among the hill tribes in 
the closest proximity of location, and probable kindred through- 
out these regions. This substantial identity of language appears 
to indicate that the Shans had olitaiiied at least their present 
degree of civilisation, and a probability of their having united in 
one polity, before their so wide dispersion and segreuation. The 
traditions of the Siamese, as wmll as of the northern Shans, speak 
of an ancient and great kingdom held liy this race in the north 
of the present Burmese Emjtire. The Siamese call themselves 
“ Htai,” or great Shans. Some fatal want of coherence has 
split the race into a great number of unconnected principalities, 
and the Kingdom of Siam is now perhaps, the only independent 


* The Khamptis, mention >1 by Prince Henri J’Orl&ns, are Shane. 



16 


Col. E. G. Woodthoepe. — Some Account of the 


Shan State in existence ; all the othera are subject, or tributary 
to Burma, China, or Siam. 

Mr. Scott says the great difficulty about the study of the 
Tai language is that there are at least four different characters. 
The Western Shans use one ver\’ like the Burmese; the Siamese 
have a character of their own, which is very like Pali. The 
Shans called Lii have another character of their own, and to 
the north of Siam the Lao Shans have another. The inhabitants 
of Keng Tung are called “ Hkon ” (Kheun) ; those of the Hsip 
Hsaung Panna (Keng Hung) and adjoining districts, “Lii.” 
Both, however, answer to the general name of “ Tai.” The 
alphabet of the Western Shans is founded on the Burmese ; that 
of the Hkbn and Lii, who use the same, is very complicated, 
and in its main features resembles the Siamese. The spoken 
language of all is the same, though there are great dialectic 
difi'erences. 

The Western Shans differ somewhat from their eastern neigh- 
bours in dress and architecture. The men’s dress, a short jacket, 
and full tiousers, is generally white, though on festive occasions 
coloured silk and velvet trousers are much worn, and the most 
fashionable shape is that which most nearly approaches a sack 
with holes at the corners for the feet to pass through. The Hkbn 
men wear clothes of a similar shape, but either black or dark 
blue in colour. The women wear variegated turbans and striped 
petticoats, made like a Siick, open at both ends, and fastened 
over the breasts and under the arms ; a small jacket being worn 
over this. The Lii men wear coats and turbans similar to 
those of the Hkbn, but their trousers are dark blue, with strips 
of different colours stitched on round the bottom, the colours 
generally being red, mauve, green and white. 

The women’s dress is very distinctive. The turban is folded 
across the head so as to give it a .shape resembling exactly a 
“ tea cosy,” the material being black cotton, ornamented at the 
ends with gold thread ; tlie gold ends are arranged diagonally 
across the front. The jacket is of black, or some bright colour, 
with an edging similar to that worn round the bottom of the 
men’s trousers. It is short, with a stand-up collar, and folds 
across the breast, tying under the right arm. Their skirt is of 
more variegated hue than that of the Hkbn women, having a 
broad hem of one colour, generally green, round the bottom. 
Large gilt or silver bossed pins are worn in the hair under the 
puggari. 

Tliey are cheerful, and generally pleasant-looking people, of 
middle height, and comparatively fair complexion. The fairest 
are the Lus, of whom some of the women are decidedly pretty. 

The construction of the houses on either side of the Salween 



Sham and Hill Tribes of the States on the Mehmg. 17 

is much the same, except that in the west they are not raised so 
high above the ground as those in the east, and the latter are 
generally larger and more substantially built. In the Phongyi 
Kyaungs, or monasteries, a great difference is noticeable, those 
in the west following the lines of the Burmese architecture, but 
in the east Chinese influence is very marked. 

The Keng Tung State, embracing most of the country between 
the Salween and the Mekong, is, from its size, population and 
geographical position, the most important, and as its capital 
presents all the features of interest, seen on a smaller scale, in 
all other places of any importance, I shall describe it in detail. 

The plain of Keng Tung is about 10 miles long, and varies in 
width, its average breadth being about five miles. The huge 
spurs from the high ranges on either side break up, as they 
descend into the plain, into gentle undulations. To the north and 
east the plain is perfectly flat and covered with rice fields, 
intersected by irrigation channels ; to the south are gently- 
swelling downs and low grassy hills, swampy hollows lying 
between. The town of Keng Tung covers some undulating 
ground on the western side of, and overlooking the plain. Its walls 
have a perimeter of some five miles. They follow the undula- 
tions of the ground, standing highest above the plains on the 
north, where a pagoda with a curious umbrella-like tree growing 
from its summit forms a striking landmark. The walls, which 
are somewhat ruinous, are crenelated and loopholed, and pro- 
tected generally by a formidable ditch some 25 feet deep, and 
V-shaped — a very difficult object to negotiate at the best of 
times. MTiere the walls descend to the level of the jtlains the 
ditch disappears, but marshes cover this portion. There are 
several arched gateways, protected by brick and earth traverses; 
one to the south gives egress to the road leading to a fine large 
tree called “Execution tree,” where, under its spreading branches, 
executions used to take place on the large market days. The 
prisoners were led through the crowds in the market, and given 
drink at the various liquor booths. A strong escort with 
bamboo ropes kept off the crowd. At the place of execution the 
name of the condemned man and his crime were read out by the 
official in charge of prisons, &c. (a court minister), and the slip 
of bamboo on which they had been written tossed over the 
man’s head. He was then made to kneel down, with his arms 
tied tightly at the elbows behind his back, and was decapitated 
with a long knife. The head was not held. This is evidently 
similar to the Chinese method. 

There is very little level ground within the walls of Keng 
Tung, and only the nortbern and eastern portion of tlie space 
enclosed is built over ; and even this portion is somewhat o’s er- 

VOL. XXVI. c 



18 Col. E. G, Woodthokpe. — Some Account of the 

run with trees. There are several weedy swamps, the largest 
being Nong Tung, or the lake from which the town takes its 
name. The sawbwa’s palace stands close by, and is a fine col- 
lection of teak buildings, well and solidly constructed and 
surrounded by a brick wall. There are from 1,500 to 2,000 
houses inside the walls, and these are substantially built, some 
with brick basements, the upper walls of planks or bamboo 
matting, some with the side walls of the upper storey also of 
brick. They are roofed with smaU well-made tiles, which 
afford protection against fire. The monasteries and churches 
are very numerous, and each stands in its walled enclosure. 

As I have said, the difference in style between these and the 
ordinary Burmese, or Western Shan, Phongyi Kyaungs, is very 
striking, and is due, Mr. Scott thinks, to Tartar influence. He 
says, “ This is particularly noticeable in the massive gateway, 
which immediately suggests the Paifan^ of China.” The 
resemblance is no doubt due to the fact that the brickwork was 
run up by Chinese or Shan-Chinese handicraftsmen. There is 
no similarity whatever to the steep-roofed, parti-coloured tiled 
gables of the Bangkok Wats.” The churches are adorned 
with elaborate carvings, mosaics of coloured and silvered glass, 
and frescoes. Each is built with a nave and two aisles ; rows of 
lofty teak columns, painted red and gilded, support the roof, the 
timbers of which are also very ornate; the ornamentation is 
most elaborate above the high altar with its huge gilded 
figure of Buddha calmly meditating beneath its canopy of cut 
calico, which much resembles lace at a great height. Frequently 
there is an ambulatory behind the altar, and then we find the 
altar with a highly ornate reredos. In front of the altar is a 
table for offerings of flowers, and iron stands for wax tapers ; a 
i.'arved and gilt stand like a crucifix is supported by a wooden 
elephant ; the arm of the cross carries a beautifully-embroidered 
crimson silk or satin banner, covering napkins used for dusting 
the sacred images. Tall handsome wooden pulpits, carved, 
painted, and decorated with mosaics, are conspicuous objects 
in the churches. The priests’ apartments in the adjoin- 
ing building are comfortable, the chief priest’s being recog- 
nised by the handsome gilt and jewelled chests, in which 
are kept the sacred records ; gay carpets and rugs cover the 
floor. Incidents in the life of Buddha, frescoed on the walls, 
are diversified by some advertiser’s flaming idea of Her Gracious 
Di Wellington, tlie latest skirt dancer, or 
i rut May s inimitable coster cartoons, cut from illustrated 
papers presented by the members of our various missions, and 
much prized. The Dean of Keng Tung, whose church is the 
most elaborate. i« a fine, portly, elderly man, of great presence 



Shans and Hill Tnhes of the States on the Mekong. 19 

and unmistakably an ecclesiastical dignitary. He has travelled 
to India and Ceylon. His monastery is very wealthy, and he is 
said to be possessed of personal wealth, contrary to the ordi- 
nances of Buddha. The clergy in the Eastern Shan States are 
generally less orthodox than those in the Western States and 
Burma, who call them “ Htu ” or “ imitation priests,” and regard 
them much as the priests of the Church of Borne regard priests 
of the Church of England. The eastern Phongyis travel about 
in great state, wear yellow caps, and carry arms. Many allow 
their hair to grow ; some even cultivate moustache and side 
whiskers, and look like the Evangelical clergy. I made many 
friends among the priests and their youug scholars while paint- 
ing in the churches. 

Outside the walls of Keng Tung are many large and populous 
villages. To the east of the town, lying under the wall, is a 
large colony of the Shan Chinese. They have been settled there 
for some time, and have a large and handsome church of their 
own. The houses are built of bamboo, and their village is very 
dirty. They keep goats, ducks, fowls, pigs, and cows. They 
are good gardeners, and we obtained some very good vegetables 
there in the spring. They grow lettuce, cabbage, onions, 
radishes, pumpkins, cucumbers, beams, Freneli beans, peas, yams, 
and several kinds of sweet potatoes. They do a good deal of 
trade, and Mr. Scott considers that they introduced tlie manu- 
facture of tiles into Keng Tung, and that the pottery — plates, 
cups, bowls, jugs, teapots, spittoons, pagoda ornaments, &c. — 
which are so varied in kind and so cheap in Keng Tung, is 
mainly their work. There are a few shops in Keng Tung in 
which clothes, tinned milk, and matches are sold. The big 
bazaar, or market, is held — as elsewhere in the Shan States— 
every five days. On three of the otlier days small bazaars are 
held in different parts of the town. There is no bazaar any- 
where on the fourth day. On the fifth day, the large market- 
place, with its lines of booths and stalls, is thronged with 
enormous crowds of people from the neighbouring villages and 
the surrounding hills. The quantity of goods displayed, and 
their variety, are very great. The vendors are Shan women and 
Chinese men. The articles on sale include English and Indian 
cotton goods and yarns, ilanchester silks, handkerchiefs of the 
most startling patterns, aniline dyes, coloured paper, Japanese 
matches, pocket knives, needles, powder and caps, flowered rugs, 
&c. The butchers, who sell beef and pork, and the shoemakers 
are Chinamen. Chinese merchants also sell the huge straw 
hats with oiled silk coverings, which are made exclusively for 
the Shan market, raw silk, fur coats, iron pots, Chinese pipes 
and padlocks, also quicksilver and rock salt. These merchants 



20 


Col. E. G. Woodthorpe. — S&me Account of the 


arrive in December, and, having disposed of their goods, make a 
trip or t'vo to Moulmein, Eangoon, or Mandalay, returning with 
Manchester goods, which they sell off on the way up or in Keng 
Tung, and return home in May laden with cotton. Western 
Shans also come here to trade. They bring das, cutch, and 
piece goods. They usually take back bullocks. There is a 
tendency on the part of some of these traders, principally well- 
to-do Taungthus, to settle down in Keng Tung, their wealth 
recommending them to the favour of the fair ladies of that 
place. Traders from Siam bring raw silk for sale, taking back 
opium from Mong Lem and the Wa States. The sawbwa and 
principal ministers invest their money in opium, which is con- 
sidered the most paying article of trade. The country women 
bring to market excellent cheap oranges, bananas, plums, yams, 
beans, peas, onions, ground and water nuts, pressed water grass 
(to be eaten with curry), jaggery, cheap and fairly good tobacco, 
and shaiiishu. Silks are woven by women of the town, and 
considerable taste and skill are displayed in the patterns and 
blending of colour. Cotton cloths of good design and well 
woven are brought in for sale by the hill tribes. 



The restaurants, where cooked food is sold, are numerous, and 
ocular evidence supports the idea that the trade in liquor is a 
large one. Fish, mahsheer, murrel, i&c., are caught in the Nam 
Kbiin and Namhap, and are kept in little pouds for sale in the 
bazaar. 

The Sawbwa of Keng Tung is assisted in his government of 
the State by sixteen ministers. Tliese do not receive any settled 
salary, but receive a certain proportion of fines, taxes, &c., and 
are often very poor, and the daughter of the ])rinie minister has 
a vegetable stall in the market. The state is divided into 
districts, each under a hpaya, or commissioner, with four or five 



Shans and Sill Ti-ihes of the States on the Mekong. 21 


advisers, who are invested with certain magisterial, civil, and 
revenue powers. Some of these hpayas have the power of hfe 
and death, without reference to the sawbwa. Each district is 
subdivided into village circles under their own headsmen. 

Gambling is universal in the Shan States; and on market 
days respectable-looking men may be seen seated in a booth, 
or some other shelter, selling tickets from little books for the 
lottery of the “ thirty-six animals,”* a diagram of which hangs 
behind him to assist the investor in making his choice. In a 
central spot is a tall bamboo, from the top of which dangles a 
small box containing the name of the winning animal for the 
day. This is hauled down at a certain hour, ^nd the winners 
declared. Other forms of gambling — odd and even, a rough 
kind of roulette, &c. — are also in full swing. Attempts are 
being made, with some success, in the Shan States, to reduce 
the excessive public gambling, but as the receipts from the 
licenses are very great, and in Keng Tung some are set apart to 
provide pin money for the queen and princesses, the reform 
must not be effected too violently. 

In all fair-sized villages there is at least one doctor, and the 
druggist’s stall is conspicuous in all bazaars. The methods of 
the Shan medical man have not been thoroughly investigated 
yet, but very many of their drugs simply appeal to the faith of 
the patient. 

Crimes, theoretically punishable by death, are murder, dacoity, 
theft of valuable property ; but, under ancient custom, every 
offence may be expiated by a money payment, unless, in case of 
murder, the murdered man’s relations demand blood for blood. 
The price of an ordinary man or woman’s life is Es. 300, of a 
woman’s body Es. 80 (claimed in cases of adultery). A chief 
or high official is worth more, but in such case the death penalty 
is usually imposed. In cases of culprits who cannot pay, or 
whose relations cannot pay, death is looked upon as a fitting 
punishment even for petty thefts. Of course our influence is 
being used pour changer tout cela, but, so far, success ha.s not 
been conspicuous. Eelatives of criminals are held responsible 
for the latter’s misdeeds, and in case of horse or cattle theft, or 
of dacoity, a who'e village, or even small township, is laid under 
contribution, should the immediate relatives fail to pay the 
required compensation. Civil cases, divorce, inheritance, and 
the like, follow the laws of !Menu, as in other Buddhist coun- 
tries. Fees, in civil cases, are regulated by the rapacity of the 
judge, and are generally exorbitant. 

In Keng Tung, if an animal is stolen, I am told the custom 

* These are not liTing animals, but only the names of that number of 
different animals. 



22 


Col. E. G. Woodthorpe. — Some Account of the 


is to make the thief restore tiie animal plus two others, one of 
which goes to the officials. If money is paid instead, then the 
thief is fined the value of the animal, plus twice that amount, 
the officials again recemng a third of the total sum ; in addition, 
the criminal has to pay about Es, 150, divided between the 
Sawbwa, the heir apparent (Kyanime), and certain court officials. 
For adultery, the husband can claim Es. 120, if he refuses to 
take back bis wife ; but if he takes her back, he only receives 
Es. 60. Divorce is readily obtainable, but, except among young 
people of low rank, is comparatively rare. If the husband wishes 
to divorce bis wife, he pays her Es. .30, if the reverse the wife pays 
her husband Es. 25. Xo compensation is paid in case of divorce 
by mutual consent. In all cases of divorce, the wife presents 
her husband with two wax eandle.s, in token of dissolution of 
union. In case of divorce the property is divided according to 
the laws of Menu. The applicant for the divorce (when the 
desire is not mutual), or the person through whose fault the 
divorce is applied for, always loses considerably in the division. 

The Shans are a law-abiding people, and loyalty to the families 
of their Sawbwas is a conspicuous characteristic. A Shan of 
good birth is very proud of his family. Succession to chieftain- 
ships and minor offices, when hereditary, does not follow the laws 
of primogeniture : a l>rother would succeed in preference to a 
son. This would certainly happen if the latter was very young. 
Glenerally, while r'ery particular as to family, a Shan believes 
in selecting the individual best suited for the office. 

If a boy falls in love with a girl, he first finds out if she 
reciprocates his feelings for her, and then acquaints his parents, 
who approach the girl’s parents on the subjects. If they agree, 
the marriage is arranged, and the Ixry or his parents make 
presents of rupees, cloth, fowls and eggs to the girl and her 
parents. Xo great fuss is made over the actual ceremony, which 
varies from the simple arrangement of taking each other’s word 
for it, to feasts lasting seveoal days Even then, the actual 
ceremony is a minor feature in the proceedings. The usual 
form among the Western Shans is for the couple to eat rice 
together out of the same dish in the presence of their relatives 
and the milage elders. The bridegroom then declares that he 
marries her and will support her. In the East there is more 
ceremony on the wedding day', all relatives and friends are 
invited to a feast at the houses of the bride and bridegroom. 
The guests take some strings of split betel nuts as presents. 
Liquor flows freely. Early in the afternoon, the bridegroom is 
taken to the bride’s house, accompanied by his relatives and 
friends. As the procession advances, it finds its way' obstructed 
by ropes at various points, at each of which the bridegroom has 



Sham aiul Sill Ti-ibes of the States on the Mekong. 23 


to pay toll. When the Governor of a district of Keng Tung 
married the Sawbwa’s aunt, he had to pass twenty of these 
ropes in a distance of half a mile. The Savvhwa himself had 
one, and the royal ladies each had one. The bridegroom on this 
occasion was mulcted of about 70 rupees. The Sawbwa’s sister 
demanded 20 Es. to allow him to pass, but eventually accepted 
15. Arrived at the bride’s house, the bridegroom takes his seat 
beside her, their hands are tied together with a piece of string 
after they have eaten together, and an old man pronounces them 
married. The guests meanwhile amuse themselves by throwing 
rice rolled into balls at each other and at the happy couple, who 
are protected by the bridesmaids with rice sifters. 

When a person dies, the corpse is washed and dressed in a new 
suit. Some money is put into the mouth as passage money to 
the next state, otherwise transmigration of the soul is hindered. 
Gold is placed in the mouths of those who have been well to do. 
Daily, till the funeral, the priests recite prayers over the 
deceased. On the day of the funeral, the corpse is carried out 
in a cofl&n much decorated witli coloured paper and tinsel under 
a gaudy canopy, feet first, the deceased’s eldest son preceding 
it with a nakecl sword in his hand to clear the way, which is 
supposed to be barred by spirits. The procession is not a 
melancholy one, the members performing dances as they go ; 
presents for the officiating priests, yellow robes, handkerchiefs, 
umbrellas, &c., are also carried to the grave. Arrived there, the 
wife or wives and children, and brother’s wife or wives all go 
three times in procession round the coffin, carrying two lighted 
candles, as a last sign of respect. The priests then recite a 
few prayers, and the body is buried. A rocket is sometimes 
fired oft, and the mourners (!) separate. The Sawbwa must 
avoid passing a house in which there is a dead person, and no 
marriage or funeral proce.ssions may pass by the palace enclosure. 

The Burmese and Shans have an idea that a man’s spirit 
takes the form of a butterfly, which leaves him when he is 
asleep or unconscious. They have a great objection to arousing 
any one suddenly from sleep “ for fear,” as they say, “ that 
his butterfly may not return in time.” On the return of a 
family from a burial, old men tie up the wrists of each one to 
prevent the butterfly escaping. This string remains till it falls 
off, worn out. Priests and chiefs are burned, as being a more 
honourable treatment than burial. By Shan customary law, the 
personalty of the deceased is divided among his relations at the 
obsec[uies. 

It is said that when a woman dies pregnant, her soul passes 
into torment, and her husband has to enter a monastery and 
become a priest for a certain time to secure her release. 



24 


Col. E. G. Woodthorpe. — Some Account of the 


When a man wishes to proceed on a journey, the priests and 
astrologers name an auspicious day, and jirevious to his depar- 
ture the intending traveller takes all his baggage with him and 
spends a couple of nights in a monastery to obtain a blessing on 
his journey. On the morning of his departure he lights a few 
candles before the altar. Should any accident occur in the 
early stages of his journey, it is relimiuished. On his return 
from his journey, the traveller’s wrists are bound with a string 
to prevent his butterily wandering off again. 

Eeligious ceremonies are observed, and feasts given on 
numerous ocv^asions. Outside a village by the roadside, one 
frequently sees little canewurk trays with sides of plaintain 
stems, decorated with tasteful bamboo hanner.s ; on the trays 
are small clay models of men, buffaloes, fowls, pigs, and cows, 
lout of each. Also small bricks representing otterings of gold 
and silver. This tray, with its contents, has taken part in a 


great ceremony for driving awa,v a severe sickness from someone. 
On an appointed day this tray is taken in procession to the city 
or village gate; it is placed by the roadside. A fowl is there 
released, and guns are fired over it to scare away the sickness. 
If the fowl disappears into the jungle the patient will probably 
recover, if it turns back the case is looked upon as hopeless. 

When a child is continually sick, its name is changed. A 
youtli usually changes his name on entering a monastery, and 
this name frequently remains with him thereafter. 

Like the Barmans, Shans believe ni lucky days, and sooth- 
sayers are consulted to fix a day for any public undertaking. 
Tiieir superstitions are many and various. Being Buddhists 
they are asliamed somewhat of woishipping “ nats ” (spirits). 
Buddiiism gets more corrupt the further east one goes, and nat 
worship gains in strength. Bufialoes are openly sacrificed to 
the nats east of the Balweeii, a thing rarely seen in the west. 
Certain nats aie only appeased by human sacrifice. The guar- 
dian spirit ot one of the Balweeii ferries claims a victim every 
year— preferably a Chinaman. The nat saves trouble by 
capsizing a boat and securing his victim. The ferry is then safe 
for the rest of the year. Shans still believe in the efficacy of 
human sacrifice to jjrocure a good harve.st. They act on this 
belief, however, less than do the Taungthus, Inthas and Yangs. 
The manner nowadays is to poison someone at the State festival, 
held generally from March to ilay. The practice is discoun- 
tenanced by the chiefs, Mr. Stirling says, and is probably dying 
out, but he has known more than one imstauce of it. The Bur- 
mese kings used to have victims burie.l alive at the gates of 
thmr capitals, Pagan, Amarapura and Mandalay, so that their 
spirits might watch ovmr the city. 



Shans and Hill Tribes of the States on the Mekong. 25 

At a village on the borders of Siam, the population is almost 
entirely composed of persons with their families driven out from 
the neighbourhood of Chieng Mai, under suspicion of being 
possessed by evil spirits, and therefore being dangerous to their 
neighbours. The exiles seem to thrive and get on well together, 
the evil spirits not preying on each other, but few persons un- 
haunted venture to risk living amongst them. 

Shans believe in witchci-aft. Mr. Stirling has known in- 
stances of women (sometimes young women) being expelled 
from a state, and all the property of their relations confiscated 
for suiiposed dealings in the black art. Maung Xyo, in a 
letter lately received from Keng Tung, says : “ Some daj's ago, 
while I was walking in the town, I heard a good deal of firing, 
and on inquiiing the cause, was told that the house of a witch 
was being burned down by order of the Court. 1 at once went 
to the scene of the fire. The witch in question is supposed to 
have killed nine persons during the last two or three years ; and 
the people have just discovered the fact ; so the witch was driven 
out of her house, which was burned. While it was in flames 
many guns were fired off to drive away the witch’s spirit, a 
familiar which might try to remain. The Shans believe that 
while a witch’s house is being burned the adjacent houses will 
not catch fire, however windy it may be. In this case the 
adjacent houses were a little apart, and well soaked with rain, 
and no wind was blowing. Xo violence is said to have been 
committed on the witch, but her property was looted or confis- 
cated.” 

Most of the tribes are spirit worshippers of all kinds ; from 
ancestors to pure fetichism. This worship, which is co-existent 
with Buddhism all over the Shan States, is more prevalent in 
the north than in the south. In the north, pagodas and places 
of Buddhist vv'orship are few, and, where they e.xist, insignificant, 
except when built by the Burmese. At one place visited by 
our political officer there was a spirit shrine much revered, or 
rather feared, while there was no pagoda, or only the mouldering 
remains of a small one. This seems due to a large admixture of 
La M'a, Kachin, Balaung and perhaps Chinese blood. 

Eice is grown everywhere in the Shan States. There are two 
systems of cultivation, one on terraced and irrigated land, the 
other on the hill sides. The former is that adopted by the 
Shans. There are three crops ; the first grown in dry weather 
on land altogether artificially irrigated by admirably con- 
structed dams and water-wheels ; the second on lands wetted by 
the first rise of the streams ; the third and main crop during 
the rains. Very pretty little fenced-in gardens are common 
along the banks of streams flowing past villages. 



26 Col. K. G. 'VfooT)THOVi¥¥..— Some Account af the 

The Shans use only buffaloes for ploughing. Western Shans 
eat little meat. In many states the slaughter of cattle is pro- 
hibited, owing to their scarcity, and pigs are little bred. East 
of the Salween, pigs are widely kept and slaughtered for sale. 
Probably well-to-do families get meat twice a week. A Shan, 
like a Burman, will eat anything, whether the animal has died 
a natural death, or has been killed by himself. Cases arc 
known in which ponies that have died oi surra have been eaten. 

Only in a few districts, populous centres, has land a saleable 
value. Occupation and cultivation give a title, subject to 
permission to settle being first obtained. Eights are forfeited 
on emigration to another state. Land is often cultivated by 
farmers other than the owners. In such cases a rent is paid in 
kind, usually half-crops, after deducting amounts of seed sown, 
and hire of the plough cattle. 

With the Shans, as with all savage people, the moon is the 
■■ measurer.” The months consist of 30 and 29 days alternately. 
East of the Salween the calendar- is always one day at least 
behind that followed in the West, which accords with the 
Burmese. All over Shan land the Burmese calendar is followed 
as to the new year, which begins about April. It is. however, 
apparent from the names of the months ( which are numbered) 
that the old Shan year began about Xovember. 

In Captain Gordon’s report on his last winter’s survey work 
in the Jlyelat — that portion of the Southern Shan State's lying 
we.st of Fort Steelman — he says there are over twenty different 
tritjes, distinct in dress, customs, and often language. These 
tribes do not, as a rule, intermarry. They are unambitious and 
unenterprising, but cheerful and fond of amusements, and 
although constitutionally lazy, work hard enough to keep them- 
-eh es in comfort. The wife does all the housework, and a 
large share of the outdoor work as well. So important a mem- 
li(-r of the household is she considered, that, in most of the 
States, a widower is exempt from aU taxation. Captain Gordon 
also says this country is rich in minerals ; lead ore is extensively 
mined in the Baw Suing State, wEere the ubi(puitous Chinaman, 
who is always to the fore where money is to be made, holds the 
contract for melting lead and silver. The possession of this 
rnineral wealth is not an unmixed benefit to the State, as the 
lulls are so honeycombed with old mines that the people cannot 
keep cattle, grazing being impossible owing to these pitfalls. 
Coal of fair quantity is found in Pwehla, and copper and iron 
were both formerly mined for in the Mvelat. Legya is now 
noted for its iron work. 

Time fails to teU, of all the various hill tribes to be met with 
in this interesting country. The principal are Kaw, Kui, Kun- 



SJians and Hill Tribes of the Statis on the Mekong. 27 

Loi, or Tai Loi, Miao, Muhso, Palaung, Lanten, Taungthu, 
Wa, Yangsek, Yanglam, Yao-Yin. Of these the Taungthii, 
Yangsek, and Yanglam tribes are found among the Western 
Shans. The Palaungs are found all over the Shan States. The 
others live to the east of the Salween. The men generally wear 
the Shan dress, and only the women’s dress enables one to 
determine the tribe. The Yangsek are considered to be allied 
to the Karens, but 1 believe have a language of their own. The 
women wear cirrions long coats, like sacks, with holes for the 
head and arms, with very short sleeves, with alternate white 
and red longitudinal stripes. The Palaungs are widely dis- 
tributed. The approaches to their villages are always good, and 
the excellence of the roads in the tracts inhabited principally 
by them is noticeable. There is one large Palaung tract in the 
Keng Tung State, and in this tract lies the Samtao circle of 
villages, where the guns are made which are sold in Keng Tung. 
Till lately, these were of the long gas-pipe style, with flint- 
locks ; now, Captain H. B. AValker, D.C.L.I., of the Indian 
Intelligence, who has done excellent work, who visited the 
Samtao villages, tells us they manufacture muzzle-loading per- 
cussion cap guns, rough though accurate copies of the Tower 
musket, which finds its way into every corner of the Burmese 
Empire. They also manufacture pistols of a Tower musket 
pattern. These Palaungs are Buddhists, and in some of their 
villages, very handsome little “• wats ” {i.e. churches) are to be 
found. 

Crossing the Salween we meet the Muhso, a tribe rather 
widely scattered over the hilts in the western part of Keng 
Tung and the northern border of Siam, where Lord Lamington 
came across some of them. They are again subdivided into Ifi 
tribes. They have come from China, and many are said to live 
there still. In complexion the Muhsds are fairer than the Shans. 
Their noses vary a good deal, some being straight, some very 
flat — oblique eyes are especially noticeable among the majority, 
and a Chinese cast of countenance decidedly prevails. They 
have a curious custom at their annual festival, which begins on 
the Chinese Kew Year’s-day, towards the end of January, and 
lasts five days. The village is “ Taboo ” for that time. The 
paths to it are blocked by bamboo erections and symbols warn- 
ing off the stranger, who, if he pei-sists in entering the village, is 
kept there till the feast is over ; everything he has, including his 
clothes, is taken away from him, and he is sent naked away. 
The Muhso say that the spirits are displeased at the presence of 
a stranger. The spirits have a house in each Muhsd village, 
which is fenced off, and surrounded with ornamental posts. 
These are renewed at the festival. During the five days the 



28 Col. R G. Woodthorpe. — Some Account of the Shans, &c. 

people dance, sing, play musical instruments, and fire off guns. 
The dance is a slow one, in a circle, each dancer being also a 
musician. They have two musical instruments ; one, a gourd, in 
which several small bamboos are fixed, the sound produced 
being somewhat like a harmonium. I have heard, from a hill- 
top, the Muhso wandering unseen in the jungle below, playing 
these instruments as tliey went ; and the soft sweet low tones 
suggested the presence of wood nymphs. The other instrument 
resembles a Jew’s-harp, made of bamboo. Though strangers are 
not allowed into the village during the festival, the men of a 
large village came to my camp one night and gave me a great 
entertainment, the women coming as spectators. 

The Kaw tribe is very numerous through the whole of the 
eastern portion of Keng Tung and in Keng Cheng. The men 
are taller than the average Shan, their features suggest the 
Chinese type, and they wear pigtails tied up inside their puggris, 
and ornamented with small silver discs. They use the kme 
musical instrument as the Muhso, and their dance is similar. 
Mr. Scott graphically describes it thus : “ A sort of figure 

which suggests the Highland fling performed by a man in the 
last stage of exhaustion.” Of the women, Mr. Scott says : 
“ They are very small, and wear a complicated dress which 
exposes portions of their person in rather unexpected places. 
They wear cloth leggings, and the married women have an 
exceedingly elaborate headdress made of bamboo, and hung 
round with festoons of seeds and shells.” 

The prettiest women’s dress we saw was that of the Miao, a 
Chinese tribe with whom we first come in contact on our eastern 
borders. It consists of a jacket with an elaborately worked 
sailor collar, a full pleated petticoat and pretty apron, with a 
neat grey puggri. 

^ I cannot close without recording my indebtedness to Mr. 
G. C. B. Stirling, Assistant Commissioner to the Shan States, 
Mating Isyo, assistant political officer at Keng Tung, a very 
'vell-iiitbrmed young Bunnan, and Mundhi 
Abdul Eahim, sub-surveyor, a most excellent assistant, who 
manages to ingratiate himself with all the wild tribes amon» 
whom he has to work. He is not, however, singular in this 
reject, my two old friends and assistant sub-surveyors Rara- 
sabad and Mahomed Hosein also displaying considerable tact 
and judgment m dealing with these hill people. 



Kev. W. Weston. — Customs and Superstitions, Japan. 29 


March 31st, 1896. 

E. W. Beabeook, Esq., F.S.A., President, in the Chair. 

The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and signeil. 

Various presents were announced and thanks voted to the 
respective donors. 


The following papers were read : — 

“ Customs and Superstitions in the Highlands of Central 
Japan.” By the Eev. Walter Weston, M.A. Illustrated with 
the Optical Lantern. 

*• Notes on the Andamanese.” By M. V. Portman, Esq. (See 
vol. XXV, p. 361.) 

“ Eoek-cirt Sepulchral Chambers in Malabar.’’ By F. 
Fawcett, Esq. (See vol. xxv, p. 371.)- 


Customs a7id Superstitions in the Highlands of Central 
Japan. By the Eev. Walter Weston, M.A., F.E.G.S., 
Late British Chaplain, Kobe, Japan. 

During a course of six years’ residence in .Japan, Mr. Weston 
made several journeys to the great range of mountains in the 
centre of the country which is known as the Sliinano-Hida range, 
and under the above title gave an account of some of the customs 
and superstitions of the people of that alpine region. 

The most important of these are : — 

1. Their eiirious hcHrfs rcspiccting veather fo'rcca.ds. — For 
instance, amongst the .signs of clear weather are the fnllowin« 
circumstances : When a dog comes out of his usual shelter to 
sleep in an exposed place ; when an echo is heard to the 
pigeon’s coo ; when the tomhi (kite) cries in the evening ; when 
the charred soot on the wick of the etndon (native paper lamp) 
is red ; when the rainbow spans the east. Signs of rain are 
seen : when tlie earth-worm crawls out of the earth ; when the 
cocks go to roost earlier than usual ; when the moon looks low ; 
and when the crow (the Japanese bird of love) washes himself 
in the water, you may confidently count on rain the very next 



30 Eev. "VV. Weston . — Ctistoms and Superstitions, Japan. 


day. Signs of approaching wind are ; when the stars seem to 
waver in their places ; when ravens croak together in unusually 
large numbers ; and when the murmur of the river is unusually 
loud. 

2. The -pradues folloiml in praying for rain . — After a 
prolonged drought a party of hardy hunters, usually five or six 
in number, are sent as a deputation to the god supposed to 
dwell on the summit of Jonendale, one of the most imposing 
peaks in tlie whole chain. Armed with guns and primed with 
sahe (rice beer), they climb to the top of tlie mountain and 
proceed to kindle a fire. 

By dischai'ging their guns, rolling masses of rock down the 
cliffs and otherwise making a din, they tuideavour to attract the 
attention of the spirit of the place to their prayers. By the 
noise and the flames they intend a mimic representation of the 
storm they are seeking, and the practice may be classed with 
those commonly known to folk-lorists as “ sympathetic magic,” 
Tlie hunters who told me of the custom when I was myself on 
the summit assured me that rain always comes within a few 
days after the ceremony. In another district a party of villagers 
go in solemn procession to the bed of a mountain stream. They 
are headed by a priest, who leads a black dog destined for 
sacrifice. Arrived at the selected spot, the dog is tethered to a 
stone, and forthwith becomes the universal target for the bullets, 
arrows and other missiles discharged by the assembled throng. 
As soon as the poor beast’s life-blood is seen to stain the rocks, 
the peasants throw down their weapons and lift up their voices 
in supplication to the genius loci, begging him to behold this 
defilement of his sacred precincts and to cleanse it in an imme- 
diate dowmpour of rain. In olden times it was the custom to 
use a horse, instead of a dog, as tlie offering. If rain was sought 
for, the colour of the animal must always be black, typical of 
the appearance of the rain-clouds desired. If fine w’eather was 
needed, the sacrifice must be one of spotless white. 

3. The ir consultations of the spirits of the mountains.— On 
Ontake, the &outhernmo.st giant of the Japanese Alps, the 
ceremony is annually practised by bands of pilgrims. Its name 
is Karnioroshi, or “ bringing down the gods,” and it is practised 
by a number of pilgrims, from two or three to a dozen or so, 
under the guidance of a leader called the sendachi. Clothed in 
wdiite garments, indicative of the purity of heart they desire, 
they a.‘-cpnd to the mountain- top. Here they believe there 
dwell beneficent spirits, who are ready, if approached with due 
lasting and sincerity of heart, to hear and to grant the petitions 
of the needy. The leader who is called sendachi seats himself 
on the ground facing the rest, who are also seated in Indian file. 



Meeting of April \Ath, 1896. 


31 


The person next in front of the ’ seiulachi is called nakaza, or 
“ medium,” for it is he who acts as the channel of communi- 
cation between tlie pilgrims and the spirits they desire to 
interview. The medium then takes between the palms of his 
outstretched hands a gohei. This is a stick of plain white 
wood with cut paper hanging from the top, and it is supposed, 
in Shinto temples, where it is always seen, to serve as a sort of 
seat for the presiding spirit of the place. With the gohei 
tightly held in his grasp, amidst the prayers and incantations of 
the pilgrim band, the medium throws himself into a sort of 
trance. His face turns a livid hue, his limbs grow stiff and 
rigid in catalepsy, hut how it is done onlj’- the initiated, like 
himself, really understand. Whilst in this state he is supposed 
to have lost his own personality, which is replaced by that of 
some god or other that has come to answer the questions of the 
worshippers. These are put by the sendachi, who acts as a 
master of ceremonies, and replies are given with orthodox 
oracular vagueness. Sometimes information is wanted about 
absent friends, future business prospects, the best means of 
curing a sickness, or the state of tlie weather for the next few 
days. 

When all have been duly answered by the medium, in an 
unnaturally hollow voice, the gohei stick is suddenly jerked u}> 
in the air. This means that the god has now ascended, and 
that the siance is over. Prayers are again offered, with thanks- 
giving for the interview vouchsafed, and then nothing remains 
but to pound the body and to knead the limbs of the medium 
till they resume their normal flexibility. 

Investigations prove it to be nothing less than a strange 
survival of one of those forms of Hindu mysticism practised b^\’ 
the sect called the Yogacarya, which, after first finding their 
way in China, were introduced into Japan early in the ninth 
century. 

The paper was illustrated with a series of lantern slides of 
unusual excellence. 


Arp.iL 14 th, 1896. 

E. W. Beabrook, Esq., E.S.A., President, ill the Choi,- 
The Minutes of the la.«t Meeting were read and signed. 
The election of Mr. E. E. Maeett was announced. 



32 


MeeAing of April \Ath, 1896. 


The following papers were read : — 

“ On the Asiatic Element of the Tribes of Southern Mexico.” 
By OsBEiiT H. Howartii, Esq., C.E., E.E.G.S. Illustrated by 
exhibits and with Optical Lantern. 

“ LTnusual forms of Burial bj' People of East Borneo.” By 
C. Y. Creagh, Esq. 

“ The Cave Dwellers of Perak.” By L. Wray, Jun., Esq. 


Mr. OsBERT H. Howarth’s paper on “ The Asiatic element 
of the Tribes of Southern Mexico,” urged the consideration 
of the view that ancient Mexican culture migrated from Asia, 
possibly from an Egyptian source. Tradition in modern Mexico 
still pointed westward, and there had existed a trading com- 
munication of some regularity between Japan and Acapulco 
before the Spanish Conquest. Not only in the larger centres of 
population, but in the most remote spots could the prevalence 
ot Asiatic types be remarked. This was especially the ease in 
Oaxaca, Chiapas, and Tehuantepec. Moreover, both custom and 
structural art, he contended, pointed to similar conclusions, and 
these were reinforced by innumerable minor facts obtruding them- 
selves upon the notice of the attentive observer upon the spot. 
True, these facts were insignificant if taken singly ; but taken 
together, he ventured to ascribe to them considerable impor- 
tance, “ In the face of these combined evidences from several 
Asiatic sources, ’ he continued, " it seems to me an extraordinarv 
and unnecessary strain upon probability to assume either that 
Mexican art was a reinvention, or that it crossed the Atlantic 
Ocean on its way to the scene of Central American develop- 
ment.” 

Quoting Professor Petrie s opinion that reinvention in 
decorative and structural art is far rarer than copying, and 
contesting the probability of autoclitlionuus growth, Air. 
Howarth concluded by remarking that material for testing 
contending theorie.s was still more abundant than was generally 
realised, and by expre.ssing the hope that extensive researches 
luight be set on foot before the new broom of modern civilisation 
had swept away the dust of ages for ever. 

The paper \sas illustrated by a large number of specimens of 
Alexican ait, including two pictographs, as well as by the 
optical lantern. 

Professor E. B. Tyi.OR had examined the obiects exhibited 
by Air. Howarth with very great interest, and considered most 





C. V. Creagh. — On Unusual Forms of Burial, &c. 33 


of them to he specimens of genuine Mexican art. In many 
examples, especially in the case of the pictographs before them, 
the line of demarcation between the indigenous and the Spanish 
styles was very hard to draw. He thought that it was prema- 
ture to form far-reaching theories with regard to the origin of 
Mexican civilisation ; the more immediate links in the chain 
would occupy iiivestigatoi's for a long time to come. Certainly 
the ancient Aztecs were found in possession of inventions 
which it seemed difficult to attribute entirely to their own 
powers of discovery ; but the whole cpiestion must for the 
present remain suh judice. 

Mr. C. H. Ee.vd drew attention to the necessity of carefully 
distinguishing between imitations and forgeries especially in 
dealing with a country like ^Mexico. An imitation might be a 
genuine instance of native style, and consec|uently possess a 
value of its own. A forgery on the other hand usually l.ietrayed 
itself by the presence of inliarmonious and incongi'uous elements 
out of keeping with the style which it aspired to represent, and 
was consequently worthless. 

Sir Hex'ry Howouth pointed out that we should discriminate 
between migrations of culture and migrations of race. Culture 
might travel both rapidly and to a surprising distance ; the 
movements of peoples were far slower and far more difficult to 
trace. For this reason, amongst many others, arguments drawn 
from racial similarity should be examined with very great 
caution. 

Mr. Gowlaxd doubted any regular communication between 
Japan and Mexico. At any rate Japanese literature was silent 
on the subject. 

Mr. H. Baleouk believed that a musical instrument exhibited 
by Mr. Howarth must have been introduced into Mexico through 
the medium of negro slaves. It was of distinctly African type. 


On Unusual Forms of Burial hy People of the East Coast 
of Borneo. By C. Y. Creagh, Esq. 

[with mate t.] 

Extract from Diary for March, 1895. 

“March 13th. — Visited some caves in a limestone hill on the 
left bank of the river near the Batu Putch estate. These caves 
VOL. xxvi. D 



:34 


C. V. Cej:agh. — On Unusual Forms of 


were used as burial places by a former race of inhabitants of 
whom none of the present settlers or traders on the Kinabat- 
angan could give me any information. The entrance to tlie 
upper cave (being in the face of an almost perpendicular rock 
at about 70 or 80 feet from the ground) is somewhat difficult to 
reach. It contains about 40 biliaii ( = ironwood) coffins, 
artistically carved with figures of buffaloes, crocodiles, lizards, 
and snakes, containing skeletons of men, women, and children ; 
and also sumpitans, spears, and articles of Chinese and other 
potterv, with brass ornaments of native and foreign workman- 
ship. The relics appear to me to be of Javanese origin, but 
there is no tradition on the river of settlers of this nationality. 
The carvings and scroll work on some of the coffins are superior 
to those now executed by native workmen.” 

The above extract from my diary refers to some caves in a 
limestone hill on the left bank of the Kinabatangan Eiver, in 
British Borneo. This hill, which is called Batu Putch (white 
rock) by the natives, is situated in a large forest of bilian and 
other valualde timber, at a distance of about a mile from the 
river, and about two miles below tiie Batu Putch tobacco 
estate. 

The caves appear to have been formed by the action of water 
on the limestone rock, but I saw no stalagmites or stalactites in 
any of them. Those near the foot of the hill contain several 
bilian coffins of rude workmanship, and quantities of human 
bones. These lower caves appear to have been frequently 
visited and ransacked by natives. Most of the coffins were un- 
covered and empty, and the bones strewn over the surface of a 
brown guano deposit with which the caves are floored, formed by 
the droppings of innumerable bats, which cling to the roofs and 
walls, and flew out in clouds on our approach. I have no very 
distinct recollection of the form or size of these caves, but I 
think none of them exceeds 20 or 30 yards in length ; mo.st of 
them are narrow and irregular, and in one iTistauee I noticed 
what appeared to be the remains of a bilian coffin, placed in a 
mere cleft in the face of the rock about 1.) feet long. 

The existence of the upper cave was not generally known 
until about twelve months ago, and I believe Messrs. Shaw and 
Rreitag, who conducted me to it last March, were the first 
Europeans to visit it. It consists of two or three irregular 
cliauiliers, connected by short pa.ssage.s, and is situated about SO 
feet from the ground. In the largest chamber, which is about oO 
feet long by 30 or 40 feet wide, I counted 40 bilian coffins of men, 
women, ^ and children, most of rvhich were elaborately carved. 
Some of them were arranged in tiers one above another, while others 



Burial hy People of the East Coast of Borneo. 35 

were placed separately on the floor of thecavern. Insome instances 
the lids (which were only kept in place hy their own weight) 
had been removed, disclosing the apparently complete skeletons 
of men, women, and children in perfect preservation. I enclose 
a copy of a sketch, which I made in my note book at the time 
of one of these coffins, which contained the skeleton of a male 
adult, and I noticed that most if not all of those similarly orna- 
mented with the protruding heads of buffaloes or cows, contained 
male skeletons, while figures of snakes, lizards, and crocodiles 
appeared to be used for the decoration of those of the women 
and children. Xone of the relics in the upper cave showed 
much evidence of decay ; the hair as well as the bones of the 
skeletons, and the woodwork of the coffins, being in many 
instances in a remarkably sound state of preservation. Most of 
the coffins contained fragments of common Chinese porcelain 
and other earthenware vessels, as well as the spears and sumpi- 
tans (blow tubes) of the men, and the brass ornaments of the 
women and children. The latter consisted chiefly of wire brace- 
lets and armlets similar to those worn by the natives of the 
interior, but brass tiaras of Javanese or other foreign workman- 
ship imparted a singularly ghastly appearance to some of the 
female skeletons, the hair on which was still kept in place Iw 
these ornaments. 

Although ilr. Breitag, who accompanied me, had provided a 
scaling ladder for the purpose, it wms not without some difficulty 
that we reached the entrance of the cave, as the cliff up wliich 
we clamliered, was almost perpendicular, and in one place slightly 
overhanging. AYe were at a loss to conjecture h(3W the coffins 
had been brought there, as some of them were so large and 
ponderous that at least four natives would be required to raise 
them. Opposite the entrance of the cave there is another open- 
ing, about ten feet high, and six or seven feet wide, from which 
there is a slieer fall of some 70 or 80 feet to the ground, and it 
was suggested at the time that the coffins and their contents 
must have been hauled up to this aperture by means of ropes, 
from the base of the rock. 

But from information subsequently given to me by Eajah 
Tuah, an Ilanun chief in Darvel Bay, corroborated !>y the state- 
ment of another native chief to Mr. Cook, in Sandakan, there is 
reason to believe that the caves were formerly reached by means 
of a spiral or zigzag pathway cut in the face of the rock, all 
traces of which liave now disappeared. 

Eajah Tuah informed me that his own people, and several 
other trib(’s of tlie East Coast formerly practised tliis mode of 
burial, and he showed me the remains of a bilian coffin in one of 
the JIadai caves in Darvel Bay, where edible birds’ nests are 



36 


L. Wkay, Jk . — The Cave Divellers of Perak. 


now regularly collected, which caves he said had been used for 
a like purpose in the old days. 

With the approval of the Kinabatangan chiefs (who assured 
me that I might do so without wounding the susceptibilities of 
any of the present inhabitants) I authorised the removal of one 
of the Batu Patch coffins, with its contents, to the Sandakau 
Museum. But on snbsecptently learning that this method of 
disposing of their dead was probably practised by some of the 
river tribes up to the beginning of the present century, and that 
the relies may possibly still be held in veneration by some of the 
interior tribes, or those of the South-East Coast, I took steps to 
preserve the remainder of them intact. 

From the superior workmanship of most of the coffins, orna- 
ments, and arms, deposited there, it seems probable that the 
upper cave was used exclusively for the interment of persons of 
rank. 


The Cave Dwellee.s of Perak. By L. Wray, Jr., M.I.E.E., 
F.Z.S., Curator Perak Museum and State Geologist. 

As far as the writer has been able to ascertain, the only 
published account of explorations of cave deposits in Malaya is 
that describing those carried out by Mr. A. Hart Everett in 
•Sarawak, Borneo, between the years 1878 and 1879. The Eoyal 
Society and the British Association voted £.50 each, and £200 
was contributed from private sources towards the expenses of 
the investigation, which was carried on under the auspices of a 
committee appointed by the British Association, consisting of 
Mr. John Evans, Sir John Lubbock, Major-General Lane-Fox, 
iMr. George Busk, Professor JV. Boyd Dawkins, Mr. Penrrellv 
and Mr. A. lY, Franks. 

Mr. Everett examined .some 20 caves in all, but the results 
(jbtained were stated to be of no “ special interest, either from 
an anthropological or a geological point of view.” “ The animal 
remains discovered” were all “of recent species, the human 
bones are probably of no very great antiquity, and none of the 
lew objects of human manufacture which have been found can 
be regarded as of palteolithic age.’’ 

One small Y-shaped fragment of stone, seemingly artificial, 
was found, and a few chips of quartz, which might have been 
produced by human hands. There would appear to be little 
evidence that the caves examined were ever inhabited for lonf^ 
peiiods bj human beings. The top layers seem in some caves 



L. Wray, Jr. — The Cave Dwellers of PeraJc. 37 

to have contained remains of recent date, but the lower layers 
appear to have been very barren. 

The limestone hills in which these caves are situated, are 
stated by Mr. Everett to be substantially identical with those 
of the Malay Peninsula, and the caves which he excavated 
were regular caves in the ordinary sense of the term. Xow it 
has been found in Perak that the deposits in similar caverns 
are also practically free of evidences of human habitation, but 
that the caves known as “ rock shelters,” that is shelters formed 
by an overhanging rocky cliff, are full of vast accumulations of 
shells, bones, charcoal, burnt earth, and other remains, clearly 
pointing to prolonged human occupation. It is cpiite possible 
that the “ rock shelters ” of Borneo have also served as dwellings 
in pre-historic times, for as far as can be gathered from the 
published reports of the investigation, this class of cave was not 
examined. 

To come now to the cave dwellings of Perak. As has already 
been said, the caves which have been inhabited arc those which 
are formed by the overhanging of the cliffs, and not those 
caverns which are hollowed out in the rock. The same class of 
cave was inhabited by many of the cave dwellers of Europe, 
and have yielded rich stores of archteological specimens. Pock 
shelters were also inhabited by the early New Zealanders. It 
was in some of these caves that the remains of the extinct 
gigantic wingless bird — the Moa — were discovered, with those of 
man. 

In places, the way in which these overhanging cliffs have 
been formed is apparent, and they are even now being hollowed 
out by the action of rivers. In Upper Perak a very interesting 
example is to be seen at the base of Gunong Si.mah. The Perak 
Eiver has eaten into the hill, to the extent of some 20 feet or 
more, and when the river is not in flood, a boat can be taken 
right along under the overhanging base of the almost perpen- 
dicular side of the hill. 'When the river shifts its course a 
little, as in the natural sequence of events it is sure to elo, this 
large cave will form an excellent camping ground for a large 
number of persons. This is the history of almost all these 
caves. Another very good example is to be seen on the face of 
the limestone hills between Ipoh and Sungei Paiar, in Kinta. 
The floor of it is now some 20 feet above the present level of 
the ground, and it extends for a length of over half a mile. At 
the time when the stream wms sculpturing this terraced cave 
out of the rock face of the hill, the level of the valley must 
have been some 30 feet higher than it now is. This lowering of 
the valley represents in a wide vallej' like the Kinta, a period 
of very many thousands of years. Some of the cave dwellings 



38 


L. Wkay, Jk. — The Cave Ihvellers of Perak. 


are at considerably higher levels than this, and are consequently 
of greater antiquity. 

The first time the writer noticed evidences of the ancient 
human habitation of these caves was in the year 1880, in the 
western end of the limestone hill at Gapis, called Gunong 
Pondok. Here shell and bone stalagmites were found of con- 
siderable thickness. Since then similar signs have been found 
in nearly every limestone hill that has been carefully examined. 

In 1886, a cave in a limestone hill near Ipoh, in Kinta, 
known as Gunong Cheroh, was visited. This cave is some 40 
feet above the level of the Kinta Eiver, which passes close by 
the foot of it. The cave is a rock shelter, evidently cut out by 
the action of the river in past times. Xear by are some large 
caverns, vhich are now well known and often visited. Some 
pits were sunk in these large caves and e.xcept on the surface, 
where there was some recent Malayan pottery, ashes, &c., 
nothing was found but a few small bones of bats and birds. 
The earth was mostly a stiff yellow' clay. In the rock shelters, 
however, were found vast quantities of fresh-water shells, both 
univalves and bivalves. Land shells were also present in 
considerable numbers. Xearly all the univalves had had their 
points broken off so that the animal might be easily extracted. 
Amongst the shells were numbers of bones, all the larger of 
which had been broken to get at the marrow, and many of 
them were more or less burnt. Pieces of burnt earth and char- 
coal were also of frequent occurrence throughout the material 
composing the floor of the cave. The most striking feature, 
however, was the extraordinary number of shells. In places 
they formed a layer over 12 feet in thickness. Portions of this 
layer were composed of beds of stalagmite, that is to say, the 
shells and bones cemented together with carbonate of lime. 
Some of these layers of conglomerate are as much as five feet in 
thickness. The present floor of this cave is some six to eight 
feet lower than it has been at a previous period. This is clearly 
shown by some ma.sses of shell and bone conglomerate sticking 
on to the back wall of the shelter at that height above the 
present level. 

In one place a curious thing is to be seen ; an immense 
stalactite hangs from the roof, and at a heigh.t of some eight 
feet from the ground is a large flat mass of the .shell con- 
glomerate attached to and suspended in mid air by it. The 
floor le\ el having fallen, the stalactite has gone on forming 
again below the layer of conglomerate. ” 

About 18 inches beneath the existing surface of the floor 
there was found a portion of a mealing stone, and a short way 
from it the stone that had been used as the muller. The former 



L. We AT, Jk . — -The Cave Dwellers of Perak. 


:39 


is of granite, about 8^ inches in diameter and 2^ inches thick. 
It is undressed, having probably been found in the bed of a 
river. The muller is 3| inches long and 2| inches in diameter. 
It is also of hard granite, and has been originally obtained from 
a river bed. The mealing stone has been used on both sides, 
and is worn quite thin in the middle, being reduced to one inch 
in thickness. A second mealing stone was found in December, 
1895, in an adjoining cave, at a depth of about 2| feet from the 
surface. This is also worn on both sides to a very considerable 
extent, but is much thicker than the previously found one and 
is quite perfect. The name gives rather a wrong impression of 
the purposes to whicli sucli things are applied in the East. 
This implement is not used for grinding grain, and its presence 
does not imply agriculture in any form. The Malay equivalent 
is made of a flat slab of wood, with a grinder of cocoanut shell, 
and is called Sankalan. It is used for grinding up chillies, 
ginger, turmeric and other things, preparatory to cooking or 
eating them raw. Stones ones are used in India, and are the 
common curry-stones of our kitchens in the East. The Sakais 
also use rude wooden sankalans ; not unfrequently part of the 
joint of a bamboo is used for the purpose when they are 
travelling in the jungle. In this they grind up their salt, 
chillies, and other flavouring to eat with their rice, which they 
boil in a joint of bamboo. Pounding stones, mostly of hard 
quartz, and more or less round or egg-shaped, have been found 
in several of the eaves. These bear marks on them clearly 
showing the use to which they have been put. 

In the year 1891, further excavations were made in this cave, 
and two human skeletons were dug up. They were of adults, 
and were lying close together. The positions were similar, both 
skeletons being on their sides, with their legs drawn up, but 
not so close to the body as to suggest their having been bound 
in that position. The teeth were not filed or artificially ground 
down, and some Malays who were present when they were 
exhumed, said that they could not have been Malayan. The 
inference was drawn from this interment, that the bodies had 
been allowed to remain in the positions in which they had died, 
and that they had been simply covered over with the earth of the 
cave without any grave having been dug. Probably it was a 
case of eiridemic disease — cholera, small-pox, or something of 
that kind — which would account for two almost simultaneous 
deaths. 

The bones were very soft and much broken up, but still in 
their proper anatomical positions. The crushing of the bones 
was undoubtedly due to the trampling of elephants, as this cave 
had been much frequented by them for a long series of years. 



40 


L. Wray, Jr. — The Cave Dwellers of Perak 


Parts of the roof and sides are perfectly polished by these 
animals having been accustomed to mb themselves against the 
marble rock. The bones were decidedly small, but they were in 
such a friable condition that it was impossible to dig them 
out in an unbroken state, so unfortunately not much more can 
be said about them. Some short way above these skeletons was 
a well-defined hearth, and over all had, at a previous time, 
been a bed of about four feet of hard shell and bone stalagmite. 
A careful search was made for implements near the bodies, but 
nothing was found. 

The other bones found in the cave, were of many different 
animals and fish, wild pig, and deer being the most common. 
Xo bones bearing traces of human workmanship were found in 
this or any other cave, but all the larger bones had been 
broken, and many of them more or less burned. One bone 
bears teeth marks on it, apparently having been gnawed by a 
dog, and it may perhaps have been the work of a domesticated 
animal. 

The shells were all of recent species, belonging to the follow- 
ing genera: — L'nio, Melania, Paludina, Ampularia, Hybocistis, 
Cyclophorus, Bulinius, &c. 

There was also found in tliis cave three valves of a marine 
bivalve — a species of C\Tena which is very common in the 
mangrove swamps of the sea-coast. Mr. Cecil Wray sent to 
the Perak Museum a piece of stalagmite containing another 
valve of the .same species of mollusc, which had been obtained 
by the late Mr. William Cameron, from a cave in a hill near 
Kapayong, in Kinta, while another sea-shell of a different species 
was found at Gunong Pondok near Clapis. 

The presence of the.se sea-shells is evidence that there was 
intercourse of some sort between the dwellers in the caves and 
the inhabitants of the sea coast ; or, what is more probable, when 
the conditions nf savage life are taken into account, the cave 
dwellers were themselves in the habit of making periodical visits 
to the coast, and on their return brought back a few sea-shells. 
This latter view of the case receives considerable support from 
the occurrence of so-called “ kitchen middens ” near the coast. 
JIenti<jn is made of one of these by Dr. J. G. Koenig in his 
“ Journal of a Voyage from India to Siam and Malacca in 1779,” 
though it is evident he had no idea of the modern interpretation 
of these deposits of shells. He says, when describing his visit to 
the harbour of Kedah, “ The country is very low everywhere and 
consists of a very muddy soil, intersected by yet muddier canals 
• • I could see that the soil underneath the mud consists 
only of cardia. ... A few steps further on I saw some 
Christian graves near the path. 1 could see from the thrown up 



L. W KAY, Je. — The Cave Dwellers of Per ah. 


41 


earth, that the soil consisted onl}' of cardia, and was little 
intermixed with clay.” From which it would appear that the 
small village he saw at the mouth of the Kedah Eiver had been 
built on the site of an old kitchen midden. 

Newbold, in “ The Straits of Malacca,” published in 1839, gives 
some interesting and more definite information on this point. 
He says, “ That singular mass of limestone, the Elephant Eock, in 
the Quedah territory . . . was visited by Dr. Ward. . 

At the foot of a detached piece of the limestone rock he found 
elevated, about eight or ten feet above the level of tlie surround- 
ing plain, a quantity of shells, chiefly cockles, oysters, and a 
large kind of mussel, which he describes to have been cemented 
together, in one compact mass, by calcareous matter, the inter- 
stices being filled with soft earth, containing numerous smaller 
sheEs. The mass was of irregular shape, between three and 
four feet square, and about the same in thickness, perfectly super- 
ficial, and not connected in any way with the rock near it. Xo 
appearance of shelly strata was discovered in the neighbourhood. 
The rock itself is an insulated mass of limestone, close grained, 
and of a dark smoky grey colour, perforated by stalactitic caverns 
of considerable size. It is situated about six miles from the 
coast, in an immense plain bounded to the east by a small ridge 
of hills, about 16 miles inland, supposed to be composed of a 
fine-grained sandstone. The soil of the plain is a whitish clay, 
mixed with sand. From its general appearance, the low nature 
of the surrounding country, the existence of the shells in the 
breccia, and local tradition. Dr. Ward thinks that it was at one 
time surrounded by the sea, and at no very distant period. The 
nature of the fossils, when discovered, must determine this 
point. It does not appear that the stalagmitic flooring of the 
caves was broken up by Dr. Ward ; this should be done in 
order to get at the silt, sand, gravel, or mud, in which organic 
remains have been usually found imbedded in the ossiferous 
caverns of Europe.” 

The detached mass of shell conglomerate mentioned here is 
evidently similar to that found in the caves of the inland hills, 
excepting that the shells are marine instead of fresh water. 
Probably it was formed at the time when the sea washed the 
foot of the hill, and was then detached and left in the place 
where it was found by Dr. Ward by the action of the waves. 

Further information is given by Mr. W. E. IMaxwell, in a 
short note on the *• Antiquities of Province Wellesley ” in the 
first number of the “Journal of the Straits Eoyal Asiatic 
Society.” He says, “ Singular mounds of shells which are to be 
met with in the north of Province Wellesley not far from the 
Muda Eiver. They are composed of sea-shells of the kind called 



42 


L. WeaY, Jk. — The Cave Dicellers of Peralc. 


Kepah and Karang (cockles) by the Malays, though they are 
situated at some distance from the sea. Xo other shells of the 
kind are to be found near the place, I believe. I have been 
told by Malays in Province Wellesley that one of t?^se mounds 
was opened and explored by Colonel Low. If the- others, left 
perfect by him, have escaped destruction at the hands trf Chinese 
lime burners, they will probably' be worth examination* and 
description. ‘ Goa kepah ’ (shell-cave), a place in the nefa^ 
bourhood, no doubt takes it names from the.se mounds.” Unfor- 
tunately, Colonel Janies Low. the then Lieutenant-Governor of 
Penang, does not seem to have left any' record of his investiga- 
tion, and no one else would appear to have made an examination 
of these interesting relics. 

It may' be objected that these shell-mounds were made by the 
Ichthyophagi, or sea gipsies, who may’ in former times have 
frecpiented the coasts of this part of the Penin.sula. Tlieir 
position some way from the present coast line points to their 
having been formed long ago, when the sea-coast was in a 
different position, and, given a considerable antiquity, there 
would be no difficulty in reconciling the two suppositions. The 
sea gipsies are Xegritoe?, and it is by no means improbable that 
they, in past times, took to a sea life while other portions of the 
tribes moved inland when the Malays or some other superior 
race invaded and occupied the littoral and river lands at this 
part of the Penin.sula. This view of the case is supported by 
local tradition, as the following extract from Xewbold’s “Straits 
of Malacca ” piroves : “ The Eayet Laut (subjects of the sea) or 
Orang Akkye, are unquestionably from the same stock as the 
Jakuns. The two tribes, it is true, differ from each other in 
localities, habits, and slightly in personal appearance, yet both 
generally admit the fact of a common origin. The following tradi- 
tion, however is current . . . amongst the Malay's, . . . 

Uattu Klainbu,aman of power in former days, employed a number 
oi Jakuns in the building of an a^tanah or j)alace. He had an only 
daughter, a young and beautiful damsel, who, once upon a time, ob- 
serving the primitive costume of one of her father's workmen, was 
.seized with an uncontrollable fit of merriment. Whereupon, 
the irritated Jakuns commenced the incantation ‘ Chinderwve,’ 
and puisued their way to the forest, followed by the spell-bound 
prince.'^s. Dattu Ivlambu de.spatched messengers to bring back 
his daughter, but .she refused to return, and eventually' became 
the spouse of the Jakun chiefs. Dattu Klambu, on receiving 
intelligence of this occurrence, dissembled his resentment, and 
invited the whole tribe to a sumptuous entertainment, on pre- 
tence (J celebrating the nuptials. In the midst of the feast he 
hred the palace, in which the revels were carried on, and the 



L. Wka.y, Jr . — The Care Dwellers of Perak. 


43 


whole of the Jakuns except a man and a woman perished in 
the flames. These two Jakuns fled to Eawang, a marsh near 
the sea-shore, and from them sprang the Eayet Laut, sometimes 
termed Orang Eawang or Akkye, who not daring to return into 
the interior, have ever since confined themselves to the coasts 
and islets.” 

This is naturally a more or less fanciful account, but it is not 
at all improbable that it has a foundation of fact, and that it 
was raids by Malays or some of the wild tribes that drove 
some of them irdand and others into tlie protection of the 
mangrove swamps of the coast, to escape from their persecutions. 
Had they been in the habit of visiting the coast before this, 
and were consequently acquainted with the arts of sea fishing 
and collecting shell fish, this would have been a most probable 
course for them to adopt. 

Eeturning now to the Ipoh cave. There were found in it 
mixed with the deposits of shells and bones, numerous lumps of 
red hematite. The same mineral was also found in two other 
caves in Perak. This ore has been discovered in the old cave 
dwellings in Europe : and it is conjectured that it was used as 
a pigment for painting the faces and bodies of the inhabitants 
of the caves. The occurrence of this substance, associated 
with similar remains, in so widely separated localities is very 
interesting. "When first noticed, the idea was formed that 
pos.sibly the mineral had been collected and brought into the 
caves on account of its weight and bright metallic appearance, 
much as children will collect any similar .stones, or as the 
Chinese miners at the present time gather up all pretty or 
curious shaped stones they may find in the workings and place 
them on the small altars they form in the mines ; or that 
medicinal or magical properties were attributed to it. The 
hypothesis of European Archteologists may, however, be the true 
explanation of its presence, for it is only nece.ssarv to grind up 
some of the hematite between two stones to form, with a little 
water or some oil expressed from a seed, like the pmh or the 
kfipniioni, a very excellent red paint for personal adornment. 

The three colours used by the modern Sakais for painting 
their persons are cluircoal, a vegetable red, and white china clay. 
These are mixed with oil, and the faces and sometimes the 
breasts of the women and occasionally the meir are painted 
with patterns with lines and dots. It is only ilone on occasions 
when they wish to add to their personal charms. 

No implements but the pounding and grinding stone.s already 
mentioned have been so far discovered in any of the caves: 
though it has been somewhat rashly taken for granted that the 
cave dwellers were the makers of the stone implements that 



44 


L. ^^'EAY, Jr . — The Cave Dwellers of Perah. 


have been so abundantly found in Perak and the neighbouring 
states. But the least reflection would serve to show that these 
implements indicate a much higher intelligence than would be 
compatible with the evidences afforded by the remains dis- 
covered in the caves. 

All the stone implement.s are axe or chisel pointed, not one 
single spear-pointed implement has ever been found. The 
second divisiiju of the stone age is divided from the first by 
the introduction of axe-pointed implements, and all the impor- 
tant advances that are indicated by the use of this type of tool. 
If the cave people had been acquainted with the use of stone, 
they would almost certainly have employed spear-pointed 
implements rif the rudest kind ; as when they had advanced 
as far as the making of chisel and axe-pointed tools, they 
would have beeir able to build houses, and be independent of 
the shelter of caves, and have been in a position to cultivate 
the soil and raise food instead of having to subsist on shell-fish 
and the animals of the jungle. The multiplicity of the types of 
stone implements found in Perak shows that the users of them 
must have been comparatively in a high state of civilisation. 

The remarkable absence of all palaeolithic patterns may be 
explained by supposing tliat there never was a period in this 
part when the ruder implements were in use, but that the 
people, whoever they were, who employed them, were settlers 
from some other locality, who on arrival had reached the second 
stage of the Stone Age. There is, of necessity, no means of 
fixing even in the most approximate manner the date of the 
introduction of tlie use of stone in Perak, but the similarity of 
the types of the implements is quite sufficient to indicate that 
it was a continuation of the same wave of progress which led 
to the evolution of the.se tools in other countries. This is, of 
course, far from saying that the Stone Age in Malaya was con- 
temporaneous with that of Europe. The number of the stone 
implements i.s, however, as striking here as in other parts of the 
world, pointing indubitably to the long continuance of the use 
of these lithie tools. 

The finding of a few implements in the cave deposits would 
by no means prove that the inhabitants were the makers of 
them, but oidy that they were of the same age. For it would 
be eprite likely that, were two races of different degrees of 
advancement living in the country at the same time, that the 
lower might occasionally acquire, either by barter or other 
means, the weapons of the higher race. In the same way as 
the wild tribes now use iron axes, pottery, clothes and other 
things bought from the Malays, and the Malays themselves use 
articles of European manufacture. 



L. Wkat, Je . — The Cave Dwellers of Perak. 


45 


So far, pottery has not been found, except some fragments of 
coarse earthenware in the superficial layers of the earth of 
some of the caves, and this is undoubtedly of comparatively 
speaking recent Malayan origin. At the present time the 
Malays are acc^uainted with the potter’s art, but the wild tribes 
are not. They use bamboos for cooking rice and other grain, 
when they cannot get Malay cooking pots. 

The burial customs of the cave dwellers would appear from 
the only interment which has been discovered to have been of 
the most primitive kind, that is, the Itodies were left where they 
fell, with possibly a slight covering of earth, and the family or 
tribe, as the case miglit be, left the place. This same custom is 
still followed by both the Sakais and the Semangs. Xot only 
the house in which the death takes place, but the clearings, 
often of some acres in extent, planted up with crops, are also 
abandoned. If anything was wanted to prove the recent date 
when the cultivation of the land was adopted by the wild 
tribes, a custom such as this is sufficient. It is inconceivable 
that such a habit could long survive in a community which 
depended for its sustenance on the produce of the soil. At 
the present time it is dying out in places, and as the cultiva- 
tion of the land increases, it must ultimately fall into desuetude. 
The Malays bury their dead in amongst their kampongs, and this 
custom seems to show a close connection between the wild tribes 
and them in this respect. It is really only a step. In fact, 
what is now taking place among the Sakais in the less remote 
places will supply instances of all the phases between the two 
customs. Trom shutting up the body in the house, leaving the 
body in the house but covering it with earth, to making a grave 
in the garden near the house. 

There would appear to be no available data by which even 
the merest approximation to the age of these cave remains can 
be made ; but it must be very considerable, as in some of the 
caves at least 12 feet of a mi.xture of shells, bones and earth 
has been accumulated and subsetptently removed again in the 
doors of the caves. In places, two and three layers of solid 
stalagmite have been formed and removed, some of these layers 
having been 5 feet in thickness. Portions of these layers are 
to be seen sticking on to the walls of the caves or on to the 
ends of the stalactites hanging from the roof. As already 
mentioned, the level of the caves is, as a rule, very much 
higher than the present level of the valleys in which the hills 
stand, though there is nothing to show what time elapsed 
between their formation and occupation by human beings. In 
the case of the caves at Ipoh, the human deposit rests on a 
bed of coarse river sand, and there does not appear to be anv 



46 


L. Wray, Jr. — The Gave Dwellers of Per ale. 


earth in between the two deposits. A factor to be taken into 
account is that the caves could not have been occupied for long 
at a time. For the supply of food would soon run short, and the 
people would have to shift to another cave, and leave that again 
as soon as the supply of food became exhausted in its vicinity. 
Thus the occupation must have been only intermittent, with 
often comparatively long intervals intervening. 

Of the habits and customs of the cave dwellers not much can 
be gleaned, but some idea of them can be formed. From the 
extraordinary quantity of shells in these caves it is evident that 
fresh water and laud molluscs must have been their staple food, 
supplemented by such animals as they snare or kill with their 
rude weapons, the fish they could catch, and the fruits, leaves 
and roots of the jungle. The absence of any implements, except 
those already mentioned, indicates an extremely low state of 
intelligence, though it is quite possible that they may have been 
able to fashion weapons out of bamboo, with knives made of the 
same material hardened by the application of fire, and probably 
supplemented by the use of sharp fragments of stone. In this 
way it would be quite possible to make bamboo pointed spears, 
blowpipes, darts, and bows and arrows. With these and a 
knowledge of the means of extracting the poison from some of 
the plants of the jungle, they would be able to kill the animals 
whose bones are so plentiful in the caves. Bamboo weapons 
would of course leave no trace after all the long time that must 
have passed since they were in use. That they used fire is 
abundantly evident, and this, in the hands of some savages, is 
made into a most effective means of -shaping wooden objects. 
'J’he u.se of fire in cooking was probably confined to roasting 
their food, for without tools it is in a country like Perak impos- 
■'ible for any cultivation of grain to have been carried on, and 
therefore the necessity for boiling would not have arisen. The 
presence of pig bones, show.s the cave dwellers were not Moham- 
medans. Tlie nature of their food and the indications of a 
custom of leaving their dead, would show that they were 
coutinuou.sly shiffing from cave to cave, and the presence of 
•Sea-shells far inland, that they may at times have extended 
their wanderings as far as the sea-coast in search of a chano-e of 
diet. 

This is all the evidence we have of their habits and customs. 
It is meagre, though apparently sutficient to enable an idea to 
lie formed of who these cave dwellers were. In the southern part 
of the Malayan Peninsula there are three races of people, without 
counting the Chinese and other modern introductions. These 
are the Semangs, the Sakais and other nearly allied tribes, and 
the Malays. The former are nearly pure Xegritoes, while the 



B. H. Chasibeelain. — A Preliminary Notice, &c. 47 


Sakais are a mixed race, apparentl}'a cross between the former and 
the race that has been called Indonesian. The Xegiitoes are 
probably the true aborigines, as they are met with even now in 
comparative purity, while the Indonesians are only to be traced 
by their admixture. From this point of view the earliest cave 
<lwellers were therefore most likely the Xegritoes. Looked at 
from the other aspect, the habits of the modern wild tribes 
are so similar to those of the people under consideration, that if 
they were to be deprived of the iron tools they now obtain from 
the Malays, they would be, to aU intents and purposes, in the 
•same position as the ancient cave men. Probably at a subse- 
^|uent date the mixed races also occupied the caves in some 
parts of the country. The habit in all likelihood continued 
until the introduction of tools by the Malays, or some other race 
in an equally advanced state, enabled them to fell the junfde 
and build houses for themselves. 


^ Peeliiiinaey XoTiCE o/f/if Lughbax Language. By Basil 
Hall ChambeeL-AIN, Emeritus Professor of Japanese and 
Philology in the Imperial University of Japan. 

(Read January 7tli, 1896.) 

Having spent twenty years in exploring most corners of Japan, 
and as many corners as possible of the Japanese mind — the 
history, the poetry, the customs, and above all the language of 
this peculiar people — I naturally wished to make acquaintance 
with the neighbouring little archipelago to the soutli, the archi- 
pelago of Luchu, which, till the year 1874, had formed a semi- 
independent kingdom, tributary on the one hand to the Japanese 
Prince of Satsuma, and on the other to the Court of Peking. 
This wish was fulfilled in the spring of 1893, and the results of 
the journey were sent home to the Koyal Geographical Society. 
Tliey show that the Luehus are no mere barbarous islands like 
some others furtlier to the south in the Pacific, but the scene of 
an eventful liistory, and the seat of an ancient and highly com- 
plex civilisation. 

The most interesting feature, however, is the language, con- 
cerning which nothing had hitherto been known in Euroj)e, save 
a short vocabulary printed seventy-seven years ago by the first 
British explorers of the chief island.^ The very few missionaries 

‘ See Lieut. H. Clifford’s Appendix to Captain Basil Hall's “ Voyage of 
Discoverv to the tV'est Coast of Corea and the Great Loo-choo Island.” ilurrav, 
ISIS. 



48 


B. H. Chamberlaix. — A preliminary Xotice 


and stray visitors that liave passed that way since then, seem 
either to have taken fur granted that Luchuan was a mere patois 
of Japanese, or else to have thought nothing about the matter 
— at any rate they have published nothing on if. Even the 
Japanese, who recently annexed the archipelago and now rule 
it liy means of otticials sent from Tokyo, have paid little atten- 
tion to the subject, their sole noteworthy contribution being a 
Japanese-Luchuan Conversation Book, which is, however, very 
faulty and unaccompanied by aiu' grammatical observations. 

To the present writer’s lot fell, therefore, both the laliour and 
the pleasure of pioneer work. The governor of the archipelago 
kindly provided two teachers — native gentlemen of royal descent, 
employed at the Xafa Prefecture, speaking a little Japanese, 
and at first ec[ually astonished and amused at the foreigner’s 
freak of desiring to learn their native tongue. Soon, however, 
one of them warmed to his task. After having, like Monsieur 
Jourdain, spoken prose all his life without knowing it, he was 
quite taken with the revelation of the existence of such things 
as verbs and adjectives, and he proved a most intelligent fellow- 
explorer. To myself the interest was palpitating, as will be 
best understood by those few whose good luck it has been to 
discover a new language. Everything had to be found out from 
a collation of sentences in which the same words or what seemed 
to be cognate grammatical forms occurred, Japanese serving as a 
constant term of comparison ; for it was evident from the 
beginning that Japanese and Luchuan were sister tongues. This 
clue greatly facilitated the investigation; but from time to time 
it failed, and then one had to grope about in the dark, till 
accident, or more facts, or some lucky hypothesis came in to fill 
the blank. 

Without more preamble, let us now turn to view the Luchuan 
language in outline,^ premising that the vowels, as here trans- 
literated, are to be pronounced approximately as in Italian, the 
consonants as in .English, with ch always as in “ church,” and g 
always as in “ give ” or “ get.” Luchuan has three short vowels 
a, i, u, and five long ones, a, i, u, e, and o, differing in this from 
J apanese, which possesses five short vowels, a, i, ?(, e, o, and two 
long ones, o and u. Moreover the Luchuan long vowels are of 
quite phenomenal length. Take, for instance, such a word as 
yahlny, which means “ to be,” or better still soti tse, the “ iso- 
lated form ” of soil tsi, “ a sago-palm.”- When a Luchuan once 

^ Full details, including a minute comparison with Japanese, are in course of 
preparation for publication as one of the Memoirs of the Literature College of 
the Imperial Uniyersitj of Japan, 

^ Properly a cycad, the Cycas revoluta j but as a kind of sago is made from it, 
and forms indeed one of the staple forms of food of the Luchuan people, we may 
perhaps here call it sago-palm ** for the sake of clearness. 



of the Lvchuan Language. 


49 


gets fairly started oa. so . . . .tl . . . .tse . . . , so tenaciously 
does he insist on the three long quantities that you begin to 
count the seconds, and almost wonder whether he will ever be 
content to leave off. Curiously enough, the glaring contrast 
between long and short counts for nothing in Luchuan prosody, 
which is regulated solely by the number of syllables in a line. 

The following are some of the most usual letter-correspon- 
dences in the two languages : — 


Luch. 

Jag. 

Luch. Jap. 

i 

. . e 

f .. h 

u 

0 

y •• r 

ch 

k 

n . . m 

j 

g 


> 

Luch. 


Jag. 

kumi . . 

. • • • 

. . kome, “ rice ” (hulled.) 

kdml , , 


.. kame, “tortoise.” 

mmui . . 


. . 7nono, “ thing.” 

chich ung 


. . Hku, “ to hear.” 

fiji 


. . hige, “ beard.” 

fafa . . 


. . haha, “ mother.” 

vxisiyu ng 


. . wasurerii, “ to forget.” 

n unung 

• • • • 

. . novm, “ to drink.” 


A good many words, especially substantives, are identical or 
nearly so in the two languages, as yarna, “mountain”; mushi, 
“insect”; Luch. hi and Jap. ki, “tree.” In other cases the 
diversity is as great as that separating the French word “ huit,” 
“ eight,” from the Spanish ocho. For instance, “ to go out,” is 
deru in Japanese, njiyiing in Luchuan ; but it can be proved 
(partly by the application of the key given above) that these two 
seemingly un-related words correspond letter by letter, thus : — 

Luchuan vj = Japanese id {i lost in modern Jap.) 

„ i = „ e 

” y ~ ” ^ . 

„ u = „ u (in this case.) 

while the final iig of the Luchuan word is a verbal termination 
wliich had already been lost in the very earliest Japanese known 
to us, that of the eighth century after Christ. In a good many 
instances we find irregularity of correspondence. Thus : 

Luch, chdyung and Jap. kieru, “to go out ” (of a light). 

„ kuhci „ „ kumo, “ a spider.” 

„ ho.chd „ „ hachi, “ a bee.” 

VOL. XXTI. 


E 



60 B. H. Cha:hbeelajn. — A Preliminary Notice 

though e^•iclentlT related, fail to show us the steps by which one 
represents the other. Speaking generally, we may say that 
Lnchuan is more original in its vowels, while with regard to the 
consonants the two languages divide this honour between them. 
Thus Luchuan / is older than Jap. h, hut Jap. k is older than 
Luch. cJi. 

So also with the sense of words, which sometimes diverge 
slightly in meaning even when corresponding in form, just as 
English “ strong,” while etymologically identical with German 
string, branches off from it in signification. The terms for “ leg 
may serve as an instance. The Japanese is ashi, the Luchuan 
fisha, which latter coincides etymologically with lire Japanese 
word /iUfl, signifj'ing in that language not “leg,” but “knee.” 
A little inquiry, moreover, sliows that tlie word ashi itself 
exists in Luchuan also, but that it is there an opprobrious term. 
As my genial old Luchuan teacher expressed it, “ You must say 
Jisha when speaking of any respectable person ; you can only 
use the word ashi of such creatures as pigs or coolies.” The 
distinction, in fact, resembles that between essen and fressen in 
German. Another example, showing incidentally how hngtiistie 
history repeats itself in different areas of the world's surface, is 
offered by the Luchuan word kv.tu and its Japanese equivalent 
koto. The latter always means “ thing,” the former sometimes 
“ thing,” hut more generally “ cause ” or “ because,” thus pre- 
-senting an exact parallel to the change of Latin causa into the 
co.^a and chose of modern Italian, Spanish, and French. In yet 
other case.s, Luchuan and Japanese part company altogether. 
Such words as Japanese sttkoshi and Luchuan ife, both meaning 
“ a little,” resemble nothing in the sister tongue. Similar 
examples are offered by 


Liich. 

Jap. 

majung 

. . torno ni, “ together.” 

wveiirlud 

. . nezumi, “ rat.” 

gajang 

. . ka, “ mosquito.” 

u'vtayvng 

. . tsukareru, “ to be exhausted. 

tarl , . 

. . chichi, “ father.” 

ayd, ajiirnd^ . . 

. . haha, “ mother.” 

y at chi 

. . ani, “ elder brother.” 

wunai 

. . irndto, “ younger sister.” 

famine 

• • “ grandfather.” 

mine , . 

.. baba, “grandmother.” 


' The use of wic and yy in transliterating certain Luchuan -rords will be ex 
plained in the more elaborate treatise already referred to. 

2 Fafa also exists in the sense of “mother,” as already mentioned. 



of the Luchuan Language. 


51 


Tlie radical divergence of sueli important words as the names 
for several of the family relations in two closely connected lan- 
guages may strike a European with surprise. Eememher, how- 
ever, that it is just these very words which Oriental politeness, 
owing to its fondness for honorific and other far-fetched 
synonyms, tends constantly to alter. The same is true of per- 
sonal pronouns, the least changeable of all words on Aryan soil, 
the most chaugealde of all in the far east. Perhaps, too, further 
investigation may succeed in identifying even some of these 
seemingly far-sundered words. As a ease in point, I have not 
included Luch. wunehiu and .Jap. oji, “uncle,” in the above list, 
because suspecting a relationship between the two terms not- 
withstanding the wide gulf that separates them in ap]>earance. 

Coming now to a consideration of Luchuan grammar properly 
so-called, we find that, like .Japanese and Korean, it neglects 
all considerations of number and gender, and manages case-re 
lations by means of independent particles, just as we do in 
English, the only difference being that these particles are “ post- 
positions ” instead of propositions. About two-fifths of the 
Luchuan postpositions agree with .Japanese; the remaining 
three-fifths seem to be original, and cannot be explained in the 
present state of our knowledge — perha])s I should rather say 
our ignorance. But whereas .Japane.se adheres rigidly to the use 
of the independent postpositions, nowhere api)roaching anything 
that might be even distantly compared with the Aryan inflec- 
tions of nouns, Luchuan is less consistent in this respect. Its 
nouns admit of a four-fold declension, thougli for purposes 
widely diflering from those registered in European grammars, 
each noun having its “ Isolated Form,” its “ Aggregated Form,” 
and its “ Interrogative Form,” and the declension varying ac- 
cording to the final letter of the word declined.' 

The following is a paradigm ; — 

1st Class (final a.) 

Plain . . . . . . fira, “ a hill.” 

Isolated . . . . . . fro, “ as for a hill.” 

Aggregated . . . , firung, “ a hill too.” 

Interrogative . . . . firai, “ a hill ? ” 

2nd Class (final i.) 

Plain .. . .. hi/iiii, “rice.” 

Isolated .. .. .. hutne, “as for rice.” 

Aggregated .. .. ktnaing, “ rice too.” 

Interrogative .. .. “rice?” 

' The technical term.a emploved here and in other portions of the present 
paper must kindly be taken on trust till the appearance of the fuller ilemoir on 
the same subject. Some of them are borrowed from Japanese (frammar. 



52 


B. H. Chamberlain. — Preliminary Notice 


Plain 

Isolated . . 
Aggregated 
Interrogative 


3rd Class (final u.) 

. . gusikii, “ a castle.” 

. , . . gxisiko, “ as for a castle.” 

. , . . gusi Jcung, “ a castle too.” 

. . . . gusi kui, “ a castle ? ” 


dth Class (final long vowel) 


Plain 

Isolated . . 
Aggregated 
Interrogative 


. , hachd, ‘‘ a 
. , hacha-ya, 

. . hachdng, “ 
. . hacha-yyi, 


bee.” 

“ as for a bee.” 
a bee too.” 

“ a bee ? ” 


Plain 

Isolated . . 
Aggregated 
Interrogative 


otb Class (final 'ny.) 

ching, “ a garment.” 

. . . . chino, “ as for a garment.” 

. . . . chinung, “ a garment too.” 

. . . . chinui, “ a garment ? ” 


The above are the only finals which the Luchuan language 
allows. There are also a few irregularly declined words, which 
cannot be here detailed. 

With regard to the case here termed “ Isolated,” it should 
be mentioned that it corresponds pretty closely with such 
French idioms as “ Cette guen’C, qto’en pensez vous ? ” “ Moi, je 
n'en sais rien," where the words guerre and moi are, as it 
were, taken up and lifted out of the regular sequence of 
the sentence, put in a place by themselves, in fact isolated. 
Japanese, Korean, Aino, even Chinese, lay stress on this 
peculiar grammatical phenomenon; but they all do so by 
means of a separate postposition, the Japanese particle sub- 
serving this puipose being vjci. “ Aggregation ” is the contrary 
of Isolation, showing as it does that the word in question must 
be joined to others, and thus corresponding roughly to our 
” too,” “ also,” “ and.” The Japanese express this relation by 
the postposition 7no. In my opinion the cases, or quasi-cases, 
of Luchuan are a new formation ; and the argument in favour 
of identifying the Isolated and Aggregated terminations respec- 
tively with the Japanese particles wa and mo will be found 
worked out in the Memoir already alluded to. On the other 
hand the Interrogative forms of Luchuan nouns and also verbs 
exhibit no trace of a Japanese connection, and their origin must 
for the present remain unsolved. 

The so-called personal pronouns of far-eastern languages are 
nouns pure and simple, and in Luchuan declined as such. 
Wang, “ I,” reminds us of the Classical Japanese ivare-, but yd. 



of the Luchuan Language. 


63 


“you” (to inferiors), and iinju, “you” (honorific), show no 
Japanese connection. The demonstrative and interrogative 
pronouns and adverbs recall Japanese analogies in many 
instances ; — 

Jap. 

Jcore, “ this.” 

. sore, “ that ” (near.) 

are, “ that ” (far.) 

. da (■€ (class fft/v) “who?” 

7iani, “ what ? ” 

. (lolo, “ where ? ” 

. itsu, “ when ? ” 

The numerals agree still more closely, excepting the words 
for “one” (Luch. c/iM orfffsf, Jap. hitotsu), and “two” (Luch. 
tdtsi, Jap. futatsu). 

The verb here, as in most languages, offers tlie greatest 
interest, being the most complicated part of speech. In Luchuan 
it is even more complicated than in Japanese ; for while we 
are confronted by the same formidable array of moods and tenses, 
and of negative, causative, potential, lionorific, &c., conjugations, 
we find that the present and three past tenses of the indicative, 
instead of ha-ring only one form as in Japanese, each possess 
five. True, Luchuan disregards number and person as consis- 
tently as do aU the other languages of the East Asiatic seaboard. 
“ I go,” “ you go,” “ he goes,” “ they go,” &c., are all to be 
translated by the identical word ichimg (in Jap. iku). The 
Luchuan tense-inflections follow a different line of grammatical 
thought, and one which is by no means easy to explain to 
European readers. Students of Archaic and Classical Japanese 
will, however, readily appreciate what is meant, as the Japanese 
language formerly made somewhat similar distinctions, though 
without pushing them to the same degree of elaboration. Take, 
for instance, the present tense of njiyung, “ to go out ” : 

Luchuan. 

Ccnclusive . . nji yung 

Attributive . . nji yurn 

Apocopated . . nji yiC 

Interrogative . . nji mi ? 

Verbal Noun . . ujl si 

The Conclusive form is the predicative verb proper, but can 
come nowhere except at the end of the sentence. The Attribu- 
tive precedes nouns, e.g., njiyuru chic, “ the goes out man,” i.e., 
“ the man who goes out.” It likewise replaces the Conclusive 


Classic Jap. Modern Jap 

idzu ~1 , 

•j r deru. 

cdzuriif 

(wanting) (wanting.) 


Luch. 

kuri 

lari 

ari 

td 

did 

71U J 

md 
it si 



B. H. Chamberlain. — A Preliminary Notice 


:.4 


in subordinate clauses ending with a post-position, as njiyuru 
nal ai, “ whereas one goes out ” ; and in one class of peculiarly 
emphatic cases it even replaces it at the fag-end of the sentence. 
The Apocopated form replaces the Attributive in subordinate 
clauses before certain postpositions, as njiyu’ kutu, “because he 
goes out.” The Interrogative of course serves to ask cj^uestions. 
The Terbal Xoun exercises functions cognate to those of the 
Infinitive in European languages, and it also in certain cases 
replaces the Conclusive form in its predicative capacity. This 
brief, and I fear scarcely intelligible, summary of the Luchuan 
tense-forms must suffice here, as only a very lengthened dis- 
Ciuisition could do justice to them, and such will be found in the 
Memoir. 

Luchuan, as already stated, has three past tense, s, as against 
the single past tense of Modern Japanese ; and all possess the 
fi\'e-fuld iutlection. In other respects the plan of conjugation 
is identical in essence, though often very different in outward 
appearance, and sometimes even in the material employed. 
The formation of the Xegative Voice, however, shows some 
divergences not easily explicable. The Present Indicative of 
the Negative is obtained from the Present Indicative of the 
Positive by changing u into a, while at the same time the pre- 
ceding consonant suffers variation according to certain fixed 
rules. Thus, 


Positive Present, 
njiyu nrj 
v.-asiyuny 
nuMuny 
kaamiy 
chichang 
machuny 


Negative Present, 
njirany, “ to go out.” 
icasirang, “to forget.” 
numany, “ to drink.” 
kamany, “ to eat.” 
ckikany, “ to hear.” 
matchany. “ to wait.” 


The Present Indicative of the Negative has but three inflec- 
tions, the various past tenses have five, as in the Positive, 
thus : — 


Ney. Pres. 

Conch J 

Attrib. \iijiruiiy. 

Apoc. J 

Interr. njirani ? 

V. Noun, njiranysi. 

and similarly through two other 
Pluperfect. 


Ney. Imperfect, 
njiranytang. 
njiranytaru. 
njiranyta’. 
njirangtl. 
njirangtasi. 

tenses, the Perfect and the 



of the Luchuan Language. 55 

The Japanese equivalents of this array of hard words are 
simply 

Beg. Pres. Keg. Past, 

flenv. denanda. 

or, in the Tokyo dialect, 

denai. denahatta. 

Japanese verbs form their Negative Voice thus : — 

Kiku, “to hear”; kUean or kikanai, “not to hear”; rniru, 
■“ to see ” ; initi or minai, “not to see ” ; and it has been hitherto 
tacitly taken for granted that the power of negation, here as in 
the case of the negative words of so many European languages 
{non, nunquarn, nicht, nget, &c.) resides in the letter n. The 
phenomena of the Luchuan verb, where ng ( = Jap. n) appears 
in positive and negative alike, will necessitate a reconsidem- 
tion of this position, whose unsoundness indeed had already 
been hinted at by Mr. Aston, the ablest of all grammarians of 
Japanese. The final decision may perhaps not be easily reached, 
after all. Another theory of Mr. Aston’s — hitherto a mere' 
hypothesis because lacking support in ascertained fact — is 
brilliantly established by the discovery of Luchuan. It is to 
the effect that the various conjugations of Japanese verbs were 
aU originally one. Their diversification is a comparatively 
modern phenomenon, peculiar to Japanese and not shared in by 
the sister tongue in the little Southern archipelago. 

Adjectiv es, in Luchuan as in Japanese, are for the most part 
verbal in their nature, — form, in fact, a special class of intransi- 
tive verbs admitting of conjugation through most of the moods 
and tenses. Here, as a specimen, is part of the conjugation of 
tusang, “ distant,” the Japanese toi : — 


Stem (used in compounds) 

Luch. 

fu 

Jap. 

to 

Adverbial form 

tuku 

toku 

Isolated state of do. 

tiiko 

toku via 

Causative form 

tiisanu 

(missing). 

Present tense Conclusive . . 

tusangf 

Do. Attributive . . 

tusaru J 

toi 

Imperfect tense Concl. 

tusatangf 

to katta 

Do. Attrib. 

tiisrttaru J 

Hypothetical Mood 

tusard 

tokereha 

Neg. Present 

tiiko na'ang 

toku nai. 

&c. 

&c. 

&c. 


Adverbs are supplied, partly by such forms as the second in 
the above paradigm, partly by nouns. Conjunctions are few 



56 B. H. Chambeelain'. — A Preluninary Notice 

and comparatively unimportant, their place being largely sup- 
plied by conjugational forms of the verb and adjective. 

The construction of sentences (syntax) agrees with that usual, 
not only in Japanese, but in even so distantly related — if indeed 
related — a language as Korean. Few things perhaps are more 
remarkable in their way thau the tenacity with which these far 
eastern languages, however widely they may diverge from each 
other in vocabulary, and however great may be the changes 
suffered by each during the lapse of time, adhere to one iron 
rule of construction, — a rule, too, which strikes European minds 
as the very reverse of natural, seeing that the sentence is turned 
upside down. However, there is no need to discuss this subject 
here. Any good Japanese or Korean grammar will supply 
details to those desiring them. 

The importance attaching to the discovery and analysis of a 
sister tongue to Japanese lies in the fact that Japanese owns 
no other sisters. Syntactically, indeed, as just remarked, and 
in general structure, the hkeness between Japanese and Korean 
is extremely close. One might even go further, and mention 
ilanchu and IMongol as breathing, so to say, the same grammati- 
cal atmosphere. Indeed a mental cousinship pervades all the 
languages of the far east, even those which, like Chinese, belong 
to an altogether separate linguistic class. "Whether race kinship, 
or mutual influence be at the root of this, were hard to say : — 
it can scarcely be the result of mere coincidence. At any rate, 
notwithstanding the close structural resemblance subsisting 
between Japanese and Korean, their respective vocabularies 
differ far more thau do those of the most widely sundered 
members of the Aryan family, differ so completely that some 
eminent scholars dispute even those faint and scanty traces of 
similarity which others have laboured to establish. 

Japanese had thus hitherto stood alone in the world, without 
kith or kin, possessing of course local dialects— for what lan- 
guage was ever spoken uniformly over so wide an area? — but 
traceable to no parent, and claiming no living relatives. Con- 
sequently no such interesting comparisons were possible in its 
case as, for instance, those to which our European languages 
and the Malay o-Polynesian familyin the Pacific lend themselves. 
Japanese etymologies, too, mostly remained at the guessing 
stage. As for the accidence, grammarians could enumerate 
forms, but were often unable to e.xplain them ; they could 
imagine hypotheses, but could not build trustworthy theories. 
"With Luchuan to refer to the case becomes different, for 
Luchuan stands to Japanese in about the same relationship as 
Italian does to French and Spanish. 

The divergent and in part more archaic, character of the 



of the Luchimn Language. 


57 


Luchuan verbal conjugation has been glanced at in the fore- 
going pages. The vocabulary exhibits similar traits, but de- 
mands more thorough sifting before it can be appraised at its 
exact value from a comparative point of view. I may, however, 
be permitted to quote an instance of the manner in which 
Luchuan, even at this early stage, can be brought into court to 
give evidence on questions of wider interest. The Japanese 
to?’ii, or peculiar gateway standing in front of Shinto temples, is 
written with the characters that is “ bird dwelling,” and 

the native account of its origin is stated, and as it would seem 
accepted, even by so high an authority as Mr. Satow, who writes 
thus concerning it ; — 

” The torii was originally a perch for the fowls offered up to 
the gods, not as food, but to give warning of daybreak. It was 
erected on any side of the temple indifferently. In later times, 
not improbably after the introduction of Buddhism, its original 
meaning was forgotten; it was placed in front only, and 
supposed to be a gateway. Tablets with inscriptions {gaku) 
were placed on the torii with this belief, and one of the first 
things done after the restoration of the Mikado in 1868, in the 
course of the purification of the Sliinto temples, was the re- 
moval of these tablets. The etymology of the word is evidently 
‘bird rest.’ The torii gradually assumed the character of a 
general symbol of Shint5, and the number which might be 
erected to the honour of a deity became practically unlimited. 
The Buddhists made it of stone or bronze, and frequently of red- 
painted wood, and developed various forms.” 

Xothing could well be more explicit. Xotice, however, i7t- 
limine, that we really knov: nothing whatever of Shinto until 
after the introduction of Buddhism iafo our earliest extant 

Japanese book, the “ Kojiki,” dating only from a.d. 71 2, when 
Buddhism, which brought civilisation in its train, was already 
an established power in the land. What modern native literati 
have to say concerning the state of their country in pre-Budd- 
histic days is therefore almost all conjecture, — conjecture en- 
livened by a patriotism of the most jingo hue. Mr. Aston, 
struck apparently by the intrinsic improbability of the erection 
of gateways for cocks to perch on, prefers to derive torii from 
torn, “ to pass through,” an etymology which might seem 
appropriate enough for a term signifying “ gateway,” though the 
long 0 of the one word and the short o of the other cause serious 
difficulty. Xow the Luchuan form of the word, which is turi, 
strikes at the root both of the orthodox derivation and of the 
proposed alternative. “ Bird ” in Luchuan is tui, and “ to pass 
through ” is tuyuwj, both words corresponding quite regularly 
with Japanese tori and torn respectively, even in the matter of 



58 


B. H. C'HAMBEELAlN. — A Preliminary Notice, &c. 


vowel quantity. The absence of the r is what the rules of 
interchange between such pairs of Japanese and Liiehuan words 
would lead us naturally to expect, and the Luchuan equivalent 
of torii according to the former etynuology would be tiivn, 
according to the latter probably tuyi. But the actual Luchuan 
form turi has an r, and must therefore have descended from 
some source distinct from either “bird” or “passage”; and 
though we should not therefore jump to the identification of the 
Japanese torii, “ Shinto gateway,” with the turan of India (the 
Lhiuese pai-Iou or p ui-fany'\, we may at least say that one 
obstacle to such a conclusion is removed. 

Eeturning now to the proved fact of the sisterhood of the 
Japanese and Luchuan languages, it may be asked how this 
close connection should be accounted for. In order to do so, I 
would first point to the extremely close physical resemblance 
characterising the members of the two nations.^ Secondly, I 
would mention the fundamental similarity of many of their 
customs and ways of thought, — in religion, for instance, where 
Luchuan usage reminds us of the simplest and most rustic form 
of iSliinto. And I would suggest that linguistic resemblance, 
resemblance of bodily conformation, and resemblance of funda- 
mental ways of thought may all be accounted for by a considera- 
tion of the manner in which the Japanese race reached its 
present habitat. Look at any atlas, and you will see that 
Kyushu, the stmtherumost of the large Japanese islands, is the 
portion of Japan nearest to the mainland of Asia, Kyushu, with 
little Tsushima as a convenient stepping-stone.- Tradition, too, 
and what little we know of the early history of the country, 
indicate Kyushu as the first point reached by the invaders, 
whence they started eastward and northward on their career of 
cou(|uest, driving the aborigines before them. 

Kow is it not intrinsically probable that while the main body 
moved north-east in the general direction of the laud, a few 
stragglers, laggards, or weaklings should have been shoved south, 
driven perhaps by defeat in internecine strife to take refuge in 
the little southern archipelago, whose islets stretch like stepping- 
•stones the whole way from the Gulf of Kagoshima in Southern 
Kyushu to what is now known as Great Luchu ? History tells 
us of the arrival of such refugees during the Middle Ages. Why 
should not the same thing have occurred at an earlier date ? 

* i or details on this subject and those about to be discussed, see a paper by 
the present writer entitled “ The Luchu Islands and their Inhabitants,” published 
in the “Journal cf the Kojal Geographical Society ” for 1895. 

* I omit Saghalien from the hypothesis, though it approaches the mainland 
nearer than Kjushu does. But the Japanese race never spread nearly so far north. 
At the dawn of history it had only pushed up to the latitude of Sendai, and 
Yezo is a much later and even yet imperfectly assimilated addition. 



D. G. BeistoX. — On the Oldest Stone Implements, &c. 59 


The racial and linguistic affinities would thus find a very simple 
explanation, while the distance in time and space amply accounts 
for the existing dift'erences ; — compare, in Europe, the diver- 
gence between the various members of the Scandinavian group 
of languages, or between the histoiy of Latin in Italy and what 
it became in France and in Spain. The eousinship between 
Luchuan and Japanese proves one debated point: — it proves 
that Japanese is tlie language of the invaders, not a native 
language taken over by them from the previous inhabitants of 
Central Japan, as French was taken over by the Xorman.s. For 
had that been the case, then Japanese and Luchuan should have 
shown radical divergence. 


On the Oldest Stone Implements in the Eastern United 
States. By Daniel G. Brinton, M.D., LL.D. 

A FEW years ago, nearly all American arclneologists believed 
that true “ pal£eolithic ” stone implements, dating back to the 
glacial period or immediately subsetpient to it, had been 
collected in various parts of the Eastern United States. At 
present, very few wiU be found ready to defend this opinion. 

This change of sentiment has been brought about by two 
factors : a more searching investigation of localities, and a more 
critical sifting of the evidence demanded to prove high 
antiquity. 

The severity of the tests which this discussion has led us to 
apply in the United States does not generally obtain in Europe, 
if I may judge from various collections of so-called paheolithic 
implements wliich I saw in the summer of 1805 in France and 
England, and from various articles which have appeared in 
Continental and English Journals within a year. 

The analysis of the evidences of antiquity which has led to 
the rejection of most, if not all, the alleged paheolithic stations 
in the L^nited States may be briefly stated. 

The antiquity of a stone implement must be judged by two 
lines of evidence ; one, intrinsic, offered by the implement 
itself, the other, extrinsic, presented by the surroundings in 
which it was found. 

Intrinsic evidence includes, 1, shape; 2, finish; 3, patination ; 
and 4, signs of use. 

If we regard the coup dc poiinj of the Somme gravels (the 
“axe of St. Acheul” of ilortillet) as the typical palaeolithic 



60 


D. G. Beinton. — On the 


implement/ thenn'e must exclude all the stations in the United 
States, for it has never been found here. We have what look 
like chipped hand-stones in abundance, but not the true 
Acheulien type. Eucle chipped stone implements belong to all 
epochs, and no special shape assigns them to the oldest. A 
misapprehension of this fact has led to some grie\ ous archaeo- 
logical errors. 

The finish of all palteoliths has been supposed to be by 
chipping. The grounds for this assumption have been seriously 
challenged by Holmes,^ McGuire,® and others. Long ago, 
Lartet and Christy, in their monumental work, doubted it. Art- 
progress must have varied in different tribes, and some learned 
to polish and bore stone much earlier than others ; while tribes 
near by may have continued to chip exclusively far into the 
neolithic period. The kind of stone preferred for implements 
must also have had a potent influence on the development of 
the art of working it. We must not permit ourselves to be 
bound too closely by the notion of a universal chipped-stone 
period. 

The value of Patination has certainly been overstated. Its 
depth depends on other factors than age. Under equal ex- 
posure, the surface of different stones undergoes this chemical 
change to widely different degrees, and the same stone varies 
surprisingly under varying conditions of exposure. Tlie chipped 
flints from the Libyan plateau are remarkably patinated, while 
those from Egyptian tombs, certainly constructed five thousand 
years ago, show uo change of surface. The contrast is due, not 
to age, but to relativ'e exposure. When implements made of 
the same material are found in the same stratum, some patinated 
much more than the others, it is not evidence that the latter are 
older than the former, but only that tlieir conditions of exposure 
have differed. Flints and cherts patinate more rapidly when 
exposed to the atmosphere ; other stones, such as serpentine, 
undergo this change more promptly in damp soils. This 
criterion, therefore, though of value, is far from being in itself 
evidence of high antiquity. 

Anyone who examines closely a large collection of “ palaeo- 
liths ” cannot but notice how few of them show any signs of use. 
If they were completed implements and actually in use, they 

* See his “ ilusee Prehistorique,” Planches, VII-IX, for the “ instrument 
characteristique ” to which I allude. 

’ One of the many studies of this expert archteologist, pertinent to the pre- 
sent theme, is his “ Natural History of Plaked Stone Implements,” in the 
“Memoirs” of the International Congress of Anthropology at Chicago, 1893. 

^ Mr. McGuire s suggestive essays, based on a long personal experience in 
dressing stone by aboriginal methods, have appeared in the “ American 
Anthropologist.” 



Oldest Stone Implements in the Eastern United States. 61 

will indicate this by minute fractures along their cutting edge, 
small irregular breaks, from hitting hard objects. In the 
hundreds of so-called American palseoliths which I have 
examined, not more than two or three per cent, reveal any 
traces which can be attributed to such action. 

This last is almost a fatal blow to accepting them as imple- 
ments at all, and I might say the same with reference to the 
majority of specimens in a number of collections which I have 
examined in Europe. 

But if they were not implements, what were they ? They 
certainly display the handiwork of man. 

The answer is prompt and clear. They are quarry rejects, or 
refuse, bits of stone from shingle or gravel, or from actual 
quarries, chipped roughly more or less into shape, and then 
thrown away on account of some flaw or fault which the primi- 
tive worker perceived and disliked. I have seen tons and tons 
of such refuse material at Piney Branch, near Washington, and 
among the jasper and argillite quarries of Pennsylvania. A 
moderate amount of practice and study will enable the student 
to detect in most instances why the aboriginal artist rejected 
a given piece, and in European “ palaeolithic collections ” I have 
repeatedly recognized such rejects by the same infallible indica- 
tions of lack of adaptability. 

The result of the above is, that while the intrinsic evidence 
enables us in many instances to say that an implement is not 
of extreme antiquity, it offers no positive reasons for asserting 
that it has such age. 

In the United States the experts have therefore rejected the 
alleged intrinsic evidences of antiquity. We depend entirely 
on extrinsic evidence. This may be stratigraphic, palseontologic, 
or cultural. 

The stratigraphic geology of the post tertiary period in the 
Eastern United States — that period in which it is possible man 
existed here — is far from definitely ascertained. 

In many states west of the Mississippi there are extensive 
though rather shallow deposits termed “ Equus beds ” from the 
abundant remains of the Equus c.crelsus which they inclose. 
They are not known east of the Mississippi, but there a well- 
marked horizon appears, lacking the horse, but with numerous 
oones of large edentates, especially the Megalonyx and Myodon. 
Hence they have been named the Megalonyx beds. Cope, 
Gilbert, and others, have claimed to have found obsidian imple- 
ments and other signs of man in undisturbed relations in the 
Equus beds,^ but a close sifting of the evidence has led to 

^ A summary of the question was given by Prof. E. D. Cope in the 
“ American Naturalist,'' May, 1887, and in various later publications. 



62 


D. G. Brixton. — On the 


increasing uncertainty about this. In the Megalonyx beds of 
the east, no testimony trorth mentioning of the discovery of 
human remains has been published. 

Tiiese two layers have been supposed to be nearly contempo- 
raneous. Cope places them before the Glacial period, in the 
Pliocene; Gillieit, on tlie other hand, brings tliem down to, or 
possibly after, the height of the CBaciation. In either case, 
they appear to mark a period anterior to the time when man 
reached the area of their deposit. 

Following these in secjuence come : — 

1. The Ctlacial epoch, a period of elevation in the northern 
part of the Continent. 

2. The Champlain epoch, a period of submergence and 
tilting of the Continental plain from north-east to south-west. 

3. The Terrace formation, during which the present river 
channels were excavated. 

4. Tlie AUuvial or existing epoch, wlien the actual river- 
bottoms were formed, and the forest humus slowly created. 

The effort has frequently been made to obtain some chrono- 
meter by which we could estimate the length of time since the 
northern areas of our country emerged from the post-glacial 
waters. One that has been a favourite is the duration required 
for the e.vcavation of its gorge by the Niagara river. It is 
perhaps the best. But how little it is worth is forcibly 
expressed by the latest \mter upon its history, Professor 
Gilbert, “Estimates founded on the same facts range from 
thousands of years to hundreds of thousands of years.’’' 

Without attempting the hazardous feat of surmising antiquity 
in years, I can at least say that the opinion now prevails among 
careful and cautious students of the subject, that no adequate 
eGdence has yet been adduced to remove the period of the 
advent of man to the area of the Eastern United States to a date 
anterior to the e.xistiiig or alluvial epoch. 

In the Lookout cave in Tennessee, Mr. H. C. Mercer exhumed 
the bones of the tapur in undisturbed relation to pottery and 
arrow-heads ; but there is no reason why the tapur, which now 
lives as far north as Uaxaca, Mexico, may not have wandered 
in recent centuries up the valley of the Tennessee river. 

It is highly probable that in the valley of the Delaware river 
chipped implements have been met with in immediate relation 
to the Ijones of the American reindeer or cariboo and with the 
peccary. The latter .still lives in Texas, and the former in 
Maine, and that they should have met in comparatively 
recent ages in the Delaware valley would not be surprising. 

' G-. K. G-ilbert, Xiajara Falls and their History,” Xew York, 1895. (Pub- 
lisLed bv the Xational Geographic Society.) 



Oldest Stone Implements in the Eastern United States. 63 


The equns beds and the megalonyx layers are the most 
recent geological horizon in the territory under consideration 
which contain the remains of extinct mammals. AVere the 
relics of man, either his bones or his implements, exhumed in 
undoubted original deposition in these strata, the palaeontologi- 
cal evidence would be sufficient to assign him a high antiquity 
on this continent. Xo such discoveries have yet been made, or 
at least satisfactorily reported. 

The stone implements wliich I have seen from the equus 
beds included axes grooved for the attachment of handles 
and stemmed arrow-heads, just like those of the modern Indians. 

It has often beeu asserted that there is evidence of the con- 
temporaneity of man and the mammoth (or mastodon) in the 
Eastern United States. That were quite possible without 
carrying the date of the event to any remote age. The 
mammoth jirobably became extinct within the alluvial period. 
It is even believed by some careful students that its existence 
was remembered by the Delaware Indians, and its appearance 
described in their traditions.^ 

The culture-horizon of paheolithic man is agreed by all to 
have been manifestly lower than that of neolithic times. 
Pottery was unknown, no formal burial or incineration of the 
dead took place, objects connected with worship are generally 
absent, compound implements — those where blacles are 
attached to shafts — and delicate secondary chipping, all belong 
to an epoch of development considerably later than the 
earliest. 

Such a primitive culture-horizon has not been discovered in 
the United States. The dre.ssed stones from the auriferous 
gravels of tlie Pacific slope are as skilfidly shaped and finished 
as those of the historic Indians; and nowhere on the eastern 
coast has any other ctdture conditions than those of the Indian 
been demonstrated. 

If we were asked where to search for the oldest stone imple- 
ments, we should naturally say, following European precedents, 
either in the shell-heaps along the Atlantic seaboard ; in the 
gravels and oldest village sites of the river-beds ; or in the 
caves of the Appalachian mountains. The shell-heaps have been 
searched with painstaking minuteuess from Maine to Florida ; 
the river-beds and gravels have been sifted with like diligence ; 
and Mr. Mercer has lately subjected the caves to the most 
thorough explorations; and with what results? That nowhere 
ha.s a trace of a population in a different culture stage to that 
of the modern Ped Indian been discovered, and this we must call 

^ The evidence is collected in Mr. H. C. Mercer’s volume, ‘‘ The Letiape 
Stone” (New York, 1885). 



64 


D. G. Beinton. — On Storie Iinplements. 


modern, that is, distinctly neolithic. In the instances of the 
Trenton gravels (C. C. Abbott) and the Potomac YaUey (Thomas 
Wilson), the supposed palseolithic finds appear to have been 
shown to be modern by the recent minute local studies of 
Hohnes and Gerard Fowke. 

The evidence from the moraines in Ohio has been persis- 
tently defended by Professor Wright,^ and it is unquestionably 
stronger than any from the Atlantic sea-board; but the few 
specimens whose history is clear do not present any defined 
palaeolithic features, and other geologists doubt the age of the 
deposit which contained them. 

I need not speak of the importance of determining that an 
ancient implement-bearing stratum has not been remanii — dis- 
turbed by later action. This is familiar to all archaeologists. 
But the processes and results of such disturbances have been 
extended by close observation. The upturning of the soil by 
falling trees, the deep holes excavated by certain animals, the 
pits left by the decaying tap-roots of some trees, the cracks and 
rifts occasioned by extreme droughts or keen frosts, offer facile 
means by which instruments lying on the surface could be carried 
to considerable depths in practically undisturbed strata beneath 
them. 

There is also a continuous shifting or secular motion in gravel 
beds, when not entirely horizontal, due to gravity, which leads 
to a constant though very slow readjustment of their component 
parts. By this agency not only does the lateral talus of such 
beds become deceptively like an original deposition, but large 
trenches and cuts caused by freshets or other agencies close up, 
and thus may cover implements which have fallen in from 
the surface. For this reason the Trenton post-glacial gravels, 
aud the extensive terminal moraines of the great Canadian 
glacier which extend from New York harbour to the Mississippi 
river, must be examined with constant caution. They have 
both yielded numerous alleged “ palseoliths.” But not under 
conditions which remove all doubts of the action of the above 
agencies. 

I conclude, therefore, by the statement that in the Eastern 
United States, a region in which I have visited most of the 
important stations and seen most of the typical collections, 
the oldest stone implements present nothing in form or 
appearance, and have not in the history of their discovery any 
sure connections, which would convey them in time or in art 
development to an earlier people or culture than that of the 
American Indian, as he was found by the earliest European 
voyagers. 

’ G. r. Wright, “ Man and the Glacial Period ” (New Pork, 1892). 



H. W. Setox-Kaee. — Colledioa of Stone Implements. 65 


JIe. H. W. Setox-Kaee exhibited, at a Meeting which took 
place on May 12th last, a collection of stone implements 
discovered by him in Somali-land and said: “My remarks 
will only occiip}^ a few minutes ; the how, where, and when of 
this discovery have already been published in the February 
Kumber of the ‘ Journal.’ 

“ During the last glacial period, human population must have 
been massed in the equatorial region of the globe. I found 
certain spots on the Egyptian plateaux on my way home from 
Somali-land, as well as in Somali-land itself, where the surface 
had not been subjected to fresh deposition of soil, and w'here 
constant denudation had kept it free from vegetation. 

“ These circumstances being favourable, I liave foimd more 
paheoliths in Egypt than in Europe, more in Somali-land than 
in Egypt ; and I hope Africa may eventually be shown to have 
been man’s original home. We are all of us anxious for fresh 
links in the chain of evidence as to the location of the cradle of 
the human race, if there was one, whether by the term we 
mean the Garden of Eden and take that part of the Bible narra- 
tive literally or no. 

“ Some have tried to show that the Garden of Eden was in 
Africa, towards the sources of the Nile, the four rivers which 
watered it being the four well-known chief rivers of Africa, 
with particular reference to the Nile. In this case these imple- 
ments would have a special interest, coming from the land 
called by the ancient Egyptians the Land of Punt, not far from 
some of the Nile sources.” 

After some remarks on the probable rrse of similar imple- 
ments by the first progenitors of the human race ilr. Seton- 
Karr continued : “ How remote such a period was we learn from 
Sir John Lubbock, who has told us in his ‘ Prehistoric Times ’ 
that the evidence from the depth of gravel deposits and cave 
stalagmite deposits, together with astronomical evidence of the 
date of the last glacial period, point to as long ago as two 
hundred and fifty or even three hundred tliousand years. 

“ How old these implements are or are not, no one can say ; 
but I think our learned friends will agree that no flint imple- 
nients with so great an aspect of age have been found before. 
Though discovered in the same district, they may be connected 
wdth different types, ages, and races, through long periods of 
time. "With Sir John Evans’ permission I will quote the con- 
cluding sentences of his communication to the Eoyal Society on 
April 27th last ; — 

‘“That the cradle of the human family must have been 
situated in some part of the world where the climate was genial, 

VOL. XXVI. F 



66 H. W. Setox-Kaer. — Collection of Stone Implements. 


and the means of subsistence readily obtained seems almost 
self-evident ; and that these discoveries in Somali-land may 
serve to elucidate the course by which human civilisation, such 
as it was, if not indeed the human race, proceeded westward 
from its early home in the east is a fair subject for speculation. 
But, under any circumstances, this discovery aids in bridging 
over the interval between palaeolithic man in Britain and in 
India, and adds another link to the chain of evidence by which 
the original cradle of the human family may eventually be 
identified, and tends to prove the unity of race between the 
inhabitants of Asia, Africa, and Europe, in palseolithic times.’ ” 

Sir JoHX Ev.axs expressed an opinion that though the 
Somali-land implements had been found upon the surface 
and unaccompanied by any mammalian or other remains 
indicative of great antiquity, yet from their numbers and 
their general facies they might safely be assigned to a palteo- 
lithic period. The perfect resemblance, on the one hand, of 
some of them to those of France and England, and on the other 
hand of many of those in C|uartzite to the implements from the 
laterite deposits of India was most striking. These Somali- 
land discoveries aided much in bridging over the interval 
between the traces of Palceolithic man in the East and in the 
West, and without assuming any synchronism, he thought that 
they might be indicative of the route taken by early man from 
his presumed cradle in a genial climate to the colder regions of 
North-western Europe. The curious shelling off of the jKitina 
or white silicious coating from some of the implements seemed 
indicative of long exposure to atmospheric influences to enable 
such chemical changes to have taken place. 

Mr. Bead concurred witli Sir John Evans in the great interest 
and importance of Mr. Seton-Karr’s discovery, and called 
attention to the occurrence in the Somah-land series of the type 
of implement identified with Moustier, as 'well as the ordinary 
drift types, such as are commonly found in England and France. 
M hile he thought it very probable that Mr. Seton-Karr’s find 
was of palceolithic period, from his account of the conditions 
under which the implements were found, yet at the same time 
he would venture to urge that the superficial appearance of 
implements was but slender evidence for assigning them to 
pjalceolithic times. He would prefer to rely upon the more 
secure foundation of the age of the stratum from which they 
were derived, which alone is a sure indication of date. He 
hoped that Mr. Seton-Karr would before going out again furnish 
himself with the data necessary for settling this important 
question. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA AND NEW BOOKS. 


Readers of the Journal are uivited to communicate any new facts of 
especial interest which come under their notice. Short abstracts of, or 
extracts from letters will he published at the discretion of the Editor. 
Letters should he rnarlced ‘'Miscellanea” and addressed to The 
Secretary, 3, Sanover Square, TF. 


Vocabulary and Grammatical Notes on the Language of 
Makura, Central New Hebrides. Compiled by Sidney H. 
Ray, Memb. Antbrop. Inst. Great Britain and Ireland. 

The island of Makura is situated about ten miles north of 
Nguna or Montagu Island, midway between Efate and Epi, in 
the south central portion of the New Hebrides Group. It is of 
volcanic origin with hills about 600 feet high. The population is 
about 1 , 000 . 

For the materials from which this sketch was compiled I am 
indebted to the Rev. Oscar Michelsen, Presbyterian Missionary on 
the island of Tongoa. 

This language is spoken on the islands of Makura, Tongariki, 
Buninga, Ewose, and Mataso. It is also spoken on part of the 
island of Tongoa. Another language spoken on Tongoa is some- 
what, different and is substantially the same as that of Nguna or 
Montagu Island. (C/. Nguna Grammar, in ‘‘Jour. Anthrop. 
Inst.,” 1887, p. 409.) The Makura language, under the name 
Tongoa, is noticed in Dr. Codrington’s “ 3Ielanesian Languages.” 
p. 471. 

§ 1. Alphabet. 

Vowels : a, e, i, o, u. 

Diphthongs : ai, au, ce. 

Consonants : h, c, g ; t, d ; p, b, r, p, w, v ; m. n, m ; r,l : 7 , h, s. 

The vowels and diphthongs are sounded as in German, ce, being 
the sound of ae, as in hdnde. 

The consonants Ic, t, w, m, n, r, I, h, s, are sounded as in English. 
C is ngg as English ng in finger, g is ng as in English sing ; d as nd 
in English under, w’ith a slight trill ; p as English yj in pit, or b in 
hat; V, as in English or German; p as ngbiv ; m as ngni ; y as in 
English yes. 

F 2 



68 


Aatliropohgieal Miscellanea and Kev: BooJcs. 


§ 2. Nouns. 

Xouns are distinguished by the article na. -which is, however, 
not used with proper names. 

There are two classes of nouns. The first class takes a sufiixed 
possessive pronoun and comprises the names of relationships, 
parts of the body, or of things in close connection with the 
possessor ; other nouns take a separate possessive word. In the 
vocabulary nouns which take the suffix have * prefixed. 

A verbal noun is formed by the suffix an, the article being 
usually prefixed. Nalegan, singing ; nadogan, hearing. The 
pei-son or thing performing an action is shown by the prefix taka, 
which corresponds to the Nguna and Efate tea. Taka ni nadogan, 
hearer. 

Persons belonging to a place are called its children. 

Nati Togoa. people of Tongoa. 

The plural sign is emag (Jfguna and Efate maga') following the 
noun. Ahan is also used. 

Collectives ai’e made by the nouns natau, heap, and namoke, 
bunch. 

Sex is distinguished by the addition of the words nataman, male, 
or navarina, female. 

The common nouns kefama, father, and kepila, mother, become 
kipnpo ! my father! and anu ! my mother! in the vocative. 


Arrow, nae. 

Ashes, naforowm. 
Banana, naiih. 
*Belly, uatia. 

Bird, naman. 

Blood, nadah. 

Boat, nararu. 

*Body, napatoko. 

Bone, nasu. 

Bow, navih. 

Boy, natarnse. 
Breadfruit, nnhatava. 
Bunch, namoke. 
Butterfly. nataltche. 
Canoe, nararu. 

Child, naturuseii. 
Clothes, :ia loui. 
Club, naon.. 
Cocoannt, -.lauiir. 
Country, naure. 
Darknes.s. nnmalig. 
*Ear, natiliga. 

Evening, daravih. 
*Eye, namatn. 
*i'ather, ket.nna. 


I Father (voc.), kepopo. 

I *Feather, navili. 

! *Finger, naidrikikin . 
j Fire, nakam. 

I Fish, naik. 

I Fly, nalag. 

Food, navinag. 

*Foot, na Ino. 
j Fruit, naiciti-na-h'. 

I Ground, natane. 

*Hair, navili. 

I *Head, napai. 

1 Heap, natau. 

\ House, naima. 

1 *Inside, napalau. 

I Island, naure. 

Land, naure. 

Leaf, namitian. 

Light, namaram. 

*Lip, nakogo. 

Louse, nakit. 

Man, naata. 

Mast, native. 

Moon, nakihati. 
Mosquito, namanmmara. 



Antliropolo(]ical Miscellanea and New BooJcs. 


69 


♦Mother, kepila. 

,, (voc.), anil. 

Mountain, natavi. 
♦Mouth, nakurogo. 

♦Name, nakiha. 

Night, epog. 

♦Nose, kinihi. 

Pit, nafhore. 

Plant, nakeh. 

Rain, naiJi. 

Rat, nakakow. 

Road, nahale, naJielemati. 
Root, nakili keh. 

Sail, nalce. 

Salt, natasimen. 

Sea, natali. 

Shadow, naniela. 


♦Side, sisia. 

Sky, na rikiti lagi. 

Smoke, naah. 

♦Son, nati. 

Spear, natoke. 

Star, -iiamahe. 

Stone, naeata. 

Sun, naale. 

Tongue, namena. 

Tree, nakeh. 

Village, natokeiiii. 

Water, naran. 

Wave, nabeo. 

Wind, nalag. 

Woman, navaciae. 

Women (plural), navlririki. 
Yam, nao, nan. 


§ 3. Prunoum. 

1. The personal pronouns are : — 

Singular: 1. Keino ; 2. Kaig ; 3. Kinini. 

Dual and plural : 1. (inclusive of person addressed), Keieite ; 
(exclusive), iTeiceni; 2. Kami; 3. Keniare. 

The dual and plural are only distinguished by the verbal particles. 

2. The personal pronouns suffixed to verbs and prepositions are : — 
Singular: 1. -rJi, ioh ; 2. -ak-iak; 3. -in. 

Dual and plural : 1. (inch) -cit, (excel.) cein; 2. cam ; 3. iniri. 

3. The possessive pronouns suffixed to nouns of the first class 
(marked with ♦ in the vocabulary) are : — 

Singular: 1. -g ; 2. via; 3. -n. 

Dual and plural ; 1. (inch), -fciYe ; 1. (exclus.) -i‘ce/u ; '.i.-irrm; 
3. niare. 


4. With nouns of the second class the words agi and raini are 
u.sed with suffixes a.s possessive pronouns. Agi denotes a thing 
possessed by any one, mini, a thing done for any one. Naima agino, 
my house ; naiiha minio, a house for me. 


Singular 1. agino 

mialo. 

2. amain 

minialce. 

3. anini 

ininini. 

D ual and plural 1. (inclus.) nicite 

minicite. 

1. (exclus.) anicem 

rni/ilcem. 

2. acami 

minica mi. 

3. aniare, niare 

minla re. 


These words correspond to the Nguna agi and uiagi which are 
used in the same way. The Nguna kaka. a thing belonging to, is 
represented in Makura by the word ena. Enan, its belonging, a 
thing belonging to it. 

0 . Interrogative pronouns. 



TO 


Anthropological Miscellanea^ and Kcw Books. 


These are : KeJie ? who ? The ? what ? which ? KaJcihan kehe T 
his name who ? Taka ibe ? which one. 


§ 4. Adjectives. 


Adjectives usually follow the noun. The word for “ bad ” show^ 
the prefix ta. The prefix nia of condition as in Jfguna and Efate 
is very commonly used. 


Bad, taka, aha. 
Black, maete. 
Clean, iroh, poh. 
Dirty, taha, aha. 
Good, icoh, poh. 
Hard, gira. 
Heavy, marah. 
Holj, tarn. 
Large, lam. 


Light (not heavtj), rnarara. 
Like, hinik. 

Red, lulu. 

Small, ssisum. 

Soft, malimilim. 

Thick, matolu. 

Thin, manivintvi. 

Wlritc, pilavili. 


§ 5. Verbs. 

1. Verbs are distinguished by verbal particles which appear to be 
fas in Nguna and Efate) shortened forms of the personal pronouns. 
These particles are : — 

Singular: 1. ni ; 2. ko ; 3. i. 

Dual: 1. (inch), fn ; 1. (excl.), mo; 2. kia ; 3. ria. 

Plural: 1. (inch), ti ; 1. (exch), mo; 2. ki ; 3. ri. 

In the dual first person andu is sometimes added to ta and iho. 
The particles are used with or without the personal pronouns. 

2. The causative prefix jsaA-a is seen in pakale, to feed, and with 
adverbs. 

3. The sign of quotation is tga. Betog iga pa row, he said that 
he would go. Nguna, B noa naga ega vaiio. This also expresses 
the conditional mood. The adverb pe also makes the verb 
conditional. 

4. Continuous or repeated action is shown by noko, preceding 
the verb. 

5. Reciprocal action is expressed as in Nguua and Efate by 
means of a noun dipo. (Nguna, tumai) 

Ti diponigiti iligiti, we strike one another. 

Ki diponicam iligicam, you strike one another. 

jRi diponiare iliginire, they strike one another. 

6. The imperative is expressed in the singular by ko, in the 
plural by ki, preceding the verb. The prohibitive is to ko pa in 
the singular, te ku in the plural. 

7. A wish is shown by the verb masanna as in Nguna. Ki 
masau na pa arah, I wish him to come, 

8. The interrogative is usually expressed merely by the into- 
nation, but if it is wished to be explicit the word ne is placed at 
the end of the sentence. 

9. Tense. The past seems to be the normal tense ; the present 
is sometimes distinguished by the words no or noko. What has 
just happened is expressed by moo. The future sign is pa rtlo. 



Anthropological ilisceHcriica. and Kevj Books. 


71 


All these precede the verb. A completed action is marked by nu 
following the verb. 

10. The directives dali, hither, and lu, away, are seen in the 
words for bring ” and “ take.’* 

Bite, cat. 

Bring, halae-dah. 


Burn (trans.) Iv.alu. 

Carry (on shoulder), ligon. 
Collect, hili. 

Come, dah. 

Cry, are. 

Dance, hah. 

Dig, cili. 

Do, poll. 

Drink, munum. 

Eat, cinihan. 

Feed (trails.), pakale. 
Eight, biviati. 

Give, on. 

Go, doic, row. 

Go away, turo. 

Hear, dog. 

Know, ata. 

Make, poh. 


Plant, lau. 

Say, befog. 

See, loll. 

Sell, sort. 

Shoot (with gyn), hit. 
Show, biheik. 

Sing, leg. 

Sit, arah. 

Sleep, matiri. 

Speak, calakala. 

Spear (fierce), biherik. 
Stand, batok. 

Strike (icith stick), ilig. 
Take away, halae-lu. 
Tear (rend), bah. 
Throw, dite. 

Tie, mini. 

Walk, diiliw. 

Weep, are. 

Wish, masauna. 


6. Adverbs. 


Below, etane. I 

Day after to-morrow, poivaih. 
Day before yesterday, nami- 
noa. 

Down, etane. 

Far off, eso. 

How ? ka ibe ? 

Like, hinik. 

Hear, simig. 

No, eh. 


So (hence), e arog. 

Thns (this way), hinik. 
To-morrow, baabog. 

Up, ehak. 

When ? na ih ? 

I IVhere ? idin ? 

Why? paka ibe? (like what?) 
I Tes, ia. 

\ Yesterday, nanove. 


§ 7. Prepositions. 

Before, (in front of) ami e, | Of, ni. 

namatana. To, towards, pfl'i. 

Behind, etake. Under (under shadow 


namela. 

With, hikoti, maherii. 


of), 


By near, sisi. 

From, coe. 

In (inside of), napalau. 

Namatana, napalau, and namela are nouns, face, bowels, shadow. 
Hikoti and inaheru are verbs, to be with. 


And, tie. 
Also, via. 
But, ke. 


§ 8. Conjunctions. 

1 Or, ne. 

Therefore, napotiren arog. 



72 


Anthropological Miscellanea and Mew Books. 


“If” is expressed by making both sentences conditional, . . .pe. 
dfa is used for “ and ” with persons. loane ma tanian, John and 
his father. 

§ 9. Exclamations. 

Alas ! Pi ! Oh ! epe ! Of pain, Ake ! 

§ 10. Numerals. 

1. Cardinal: 1, sikitek ; 2. iru ; 3, Hole; 4, ivati ; 5, iUnie ; 
6, lati ; 7, lam; 8, latole ; 9, Invite; 10, dualima. 

In counting iti is used instead of sikitek. The unit above ten is 
tacore. 11, dualima sikitek tacore sikitek; 12. dualima sikitek 
tacore iru; 20, rualima iru ; 30, rualima itole ; 100. poiiuti sikitek. 

2. Ordinal : These are formed by prefixing ke to the cardinal. 
Second, A'erii ,■ third, AefoZe ; first is diuiiii. 

3. Multiplication is expressed by prefixing the causative paka ; 
pakaru, twice. 

4. The interrogatives are : ri bih ? how many ? "paka vih ? hovy 
many times ? Vih is the common visa. 


I have no texts in the Makura language. As the island is very 
small and the Tongoa-Ngnna language is very widely spread 
among the adjacent islands, an endeavour will, no doubt, be made 
to bring the latter language into general use. For comparison 
the Eev. O. Michelsen gives the opening clauses of the Lord's 
Prayer. I have added the corresponding parts in the neighbouring 
dialects. 

Makcra. 

Popo aniceme arai ko doko narikitilagi doko. Nakikama pa taka 
tarn. Namarakeana maine pa arah. Namasauniana iuaine ru ivoh 
varemane pa hiniki ri noko poh’ narikitilagi. 

Toxgoa-Hguxa. 

Mamaginami ivaina ku toko nakoroatelagi toko. Nagisama ega 
fapu.. E amarakiana anigo ega iimai. Nainasaiaia anigo euga mari 
a maramana, ega takiusi ivaina eu to mari a nakoroatelagi. 

Efatb : Havannah Harbour. 

Temagami o naga ku mato naburou. Aginago nagiema ega tab. 
Aginago namerameran ega fanamai. Aginago namarakarau ega take, 
takanoan e to naburou, takanoanaga ega niera to intano. 

Efate. Ebakor. 

Temam nag ku tok elagsau, Nagiem ke tab. E amerarneran nigag 
ke fakor. Eukfrig te nag ag ku murine nieromina nin, taosi kin ru 
tok brig i elagsau. 

Efate: DiALECT XOW USED IN TRANSLATIONS. 

Temagami 0 uane ku toko elagi. Nagiema iga tab. Namerameran 
anago iga mat. Euga bati te uane ku mesau na emeromina, bakauli 
uan ru toko hat ia elagi. 




Anthropological Miscellanea and Nev: Boohs. 


73 


Tasiko: Island of Epi. Jf-E. of Toxgoa. 

Arimamemi nagepa teke peni. Soma ki e ki tea. Soma natirarena 
imi. Natnefhania soma a tapa yomarava, e sipa nage pa a ntapa 
mava e peni. 


Antropometria Militare.” Risultati ottennti dallo Spoglio 
dei Fogli Sanitarii dei Militari delle Classi 1859-63, eseguito 
dall ’Ispettorato di Sanita Militare per ordine del Ministero 
della Guerra ; Incaricato della Direzione dei Lavori, Dr. 
Ridolfo Livi, Capitano Medico. Parte I, Dati Antropologici 
ed Etnologici (Rome, 1896). 

With the American War of Secession, the study of man, both 
from the physical and mental side took a new departure, wdiich 
has already yielded most satisfactory results, especially in those 
states where the conscription is a permanent institution. The 
example set by the Washington Government of publishing care- 
fully prepared digests of the medical and anthropological data 
supplied by the examination of over a million reemits summoned 
to arms during the sixties naturally found numerous imitators else- 
where, and thus was rapidly developed a new branch of anthropo- 
logical science commonly, though somewhat inadequately, called 
*• Slilitary Anthropometry.” Almost every civilised state has now 
its medical or sanitary bureau attached to the War Office, where 
are collected, digested, and from time to time published, all kinds 
of medical and anthropological statistics derived from the 
inspection of the conscripts or recruits that are annually either 
rejected or drafted into the service. The great value of these 
summaries is due in part to the large number of ■' subjects ” dealt 
with, and partly also to the generally high character of the 
inspectors, all specialists, whose efficiency is thoroughly secured by 
the wide field of observation placed at their disposal. 

Thanks to this combination of favourable conditions, the 
sumptuous volumes prepared by Mr. B. A. Gould for the United 
States Sanitary Commission (1869), and by Dr. J. H. Baxter for 
the Washington War Department (1875) have been followed by a 
whole series of similar publications issued from time to time by the 
Governments of Bavaria, Saxony, Switzerland, Belgium, Austria- 
Hungary, and several other European States. Amongst these 
official contributions to anthropological studies a high place must 
be assigned to the compilation under notice, which has been issued 
by Dr. Ridolfo Livi, on the staff of the Sanitary Bureau attached 
to the Italian Ministry of War. We learn from a preliminary 
notice that the work has been published with the consent of the 
War Office by the directors of the Giornale Medico del Ttegio 
Bsercito, and that it is '* the final outcome of the patient labours of 
the military sanitary body, which has for many years been charged 
with the compilation of the sanitary publications.” Special refer- 
ence is made to the services of the Medical Commissioner, Colonel 



74 


Antlirojpolofpcal Miscdla-,ua. and Xen: Bools. 


Salvatore Guida, who is credited with the idea of having originated 
and given effect to the project of issuing the valuable periodical 
statistical records which are summarised in the present work. 

The first part of this elaborate compilation deals exclusively with 
strictly anthropological and ethnological statistics, which are 
conveniently arranged in three separate divisions. First comes 
the Text, which, in seven chapters, discusses the various aspects of 
general and military anthropometry ; and here the inadequacy of 
tlie term “ Anthropometry ” is at once made evident. These com- 
p.arative studies are by no means limited to *■ measurements ” of 
the human body, such as were made on the Roman conscripts 
even under the Republic. Besides stature, weight of body, 
cephalic indices, width of chest, and so forth, attention is 
also paid to the colour of hair, eyes, and skin, to the structure of 
the hair, the face, nose, gnathism, and similar physical characters. 
Extensive observations are even recorded on the correlation of 
these characters both to each other and to the varying conditions 
of the environment and of the social position of the conscripts from 
all parts of the kingdom. Thus copious materials are afforded for 
studying the influence of altitude above sea-level, of rural or urban 
districts, of the industries and other pursuits on the stature, com- 
plexion, colour, and quality of the hair, and so on. In the last 
chapter of the Text we have a critical survey of the whole ground, 
the recorded results being taken in geographical order from north 
to south (Piedmont to Calabria), concluding with the islands of 
Sicily and Sardinia. Corsica, unfortunately, is excluded, as 
belonging politically to Fi’ance, though it would certainly have 
been most convenient to have the French returns for that Italian 
island introduced for comparative purposes. 

lu the second division are comprised the Statistical Tables, by 
far the largest and most valuable section of the work. There are 
altogether twenty-three of these tables, making 420 large 4to pages, 
in which are systematically disposed the details of the above 
described characters for every commune, circle, and province of the 
kingdom, as determined by the inspection of the conscripts for the 
five years 1859-63. 

There follows in a separate volume, the third division, which is 
entitled an “ Atlas of the Anthropological Geography of Italy,” 
and which may be briefly described as a graphic representation of 
the results of the statistical details comprised in the second division. 
Here are brought together a large number of coloured maps of the 
peninsula and islands, on which the relative proportions of the 
indicated characters in the different provinces and districts are 
clearly shown by the usual device of corresponding shadings. 
These extremely useful and admirably executed maps are supple- 
mented by a series of diagrams, in which the stature, cephalic 
index, correlation of colour of eyes to colour of hair, correlation of 
stature to colour of hair and cephalic index, variations of structure 
of the hair, complexion, height of forehead, shape of nose and 
mouth according to stature, are indicated by a simple linear 



Anthropological Miscellanea, and Kevj Boohs. 75 

graphic method for all the chief administratiTe divisions of the- 
kingdom. 

Some of the broad generalisations, which seem justified by an 
attentive study of the rich materials embodied in this monumental 
work, are estremely interesting. Thus, speaking generally, 
stature, the fair type, the cephalic inde.v, red hair, florid com- 
plexion, aquiline nose, and full chest, are all found to decrease 
steadily in the direction from north to south. Specially note- 
worthy is also the astonishing uniformity of the physical characters 
in Sardinia. Here there would almost seem to be no averages, but 
only extremes on one side or the other throughout the whole 
extent of the island. These primitive and long secluded popula- 
tions, probably the direct descendants of earlj- neolithic man, 
slightly modified by later interminglings. present no greater- 
diversity in their physical characters than the Andamanese 
islanders themselves. Hence in the various series of geographical 
maps of the Atlas, that of Sardinia is invariably distinguished by 
the deepest shadings, that is. those which mark the extremes either 
way. Thus the great bulk of the natives have the shortest 
stature, the brownest eyes and hail*, the most dolichocephalic 
heads,' the swarthiest complexion, the narrowest chests of all the 
Italian populations. “ They con.sequently form quite a distinct 
variety amongst the Italian races, which is natural enough when 
we remember the seclusion in which this i.sland has remained for so- 
many ages.” (Text, p. 1S2.) 

But perhaps enough has been said to indicate the general 
character, contents, and importance of this first contribution of 
the Italian Government to the new-born science of “Military 
Anthropometry.” Some day, though it is to be feared not in our 
time, the English War Office may also perhaps be induced to bestir 
itself and take an active part in this supremely useful work. 

A. H. Keaxe. 

“The Principles of Sociology, an Analysis of the Phenomena 
of Association and of Social Organisation.” By F. H. 
Giddings, M.A., Professor of Sociology in Columbia Uni- 
versity. Macmillan and Co. 8vo. 12^. 6(?. net. 

“ The time has not come for an exhau.stive treatise on Sociology^ 
IS’evertheless .... there are principles of Sociology, aud 
they admit of logical organisation. The present work is an 
attempt to combine the principles of Sociology in a coherent 
theory. Believing that Sociology is a psychological science, and 
that the description of society in biological terms is a mistake, I 
have endeavoured to direct attention chiefly to the psychic aspects 
of social phenomena. Association and social organisation I have 
attempted to explain as consequences of a particular mental state,. 

' It is shown in niT “ Ethnology ” (p. 149) that the first neolithic peoples of 
West and South Europe were long-headed and not round-headed, as is 
commonly supposed. 



76 Anthropological MisceUanca and Xcic Books. 

namelf the consciousness of kind, which is defined as a state of 
consciousness in which any being .... recognises another 
being as of like kind with itself.” 

These introductory passages sufficiently define Prof. Giddings’ 
general position. His succinct and thoughtful treatise consists of 
four books, of which the first and fourth are more purely 
theoretical, while the second and third are descriptive. In the 
first book he assigns to his science its due place in the hierarchy, 
and demonstrates its right to an independent existence. Biology 
as the general science of life must precede Psychology, the science 
of the individual mind: but Psychology in its turn must precede 
Sociology, which is the science of the association of minds. “In 
their philosophical relations, therefore. Biology, Psychology, and 
Sociology are sciences corresponding to a gradation of phenomena 
which at each step become more complicated and involved.” 

But if it must be subsumed under the more comprehensive 
sciences of life and mind. Sociology is itself more comprehensive 
than the particular social sciences, &c. Xor is it merely equiva- 
lent to the sum of these. Just as Biology fought its way to 
recognition as an independent science forming a foundation for 
Botany. Zoology, and Physiology, so has Sociology to fight its way 
against the philosophy of History, Ethnology, and the Political 
Sciences. The argument may be j’esumed thus : “ Sociology is 
differentiated from Psychology just as P.sychology is differentiated 
from Biology. The special social sciences are differentiations of 
Sociology.” Sociology is consequently nearer to Psychology than 
to Biology. Finally the student of Sociology must make himself 
acquainted at least with the rudiments of the sciences of life and 
mind, just as the student of the special social sciences must make 
himself acquainted with the rudiments of Sociology. Otherwise 
they will resemble students of Astronomy or Thermodynamics 
who have not troubled to learn the Xewtonian laws of motion. 
Adopting, with certain modifications, Mr. Spencer's classification 
of the sciences in preference to Comte’s, the author explains how 
Sociology is a concrete science. It is “ a descriptive, historical and 
explanatory account of society regarded as a thoroughly concrete 
reality ” (p. 40). 

But as the abstract and the concrete sciences are not isolated 
but mutually traverse and react upon each other, so that, to 
employ a modern political phra.se, their spheres of influence in 
many cases overlap, so the method which is more peculiar to each 
must not be exclusively employed, but reinforced by the applica- 
tion of the method peculiar to the other. In other words, though 
induction is more particularly the method of the concrete sciences, 
and deduction that of the abstract, both must use a combination of 
the two methods, though in a different proportion. Thus, although 
the student of Sociology will begin by induction, he must conclude 
by a synthesis: he must learn to compare deductions from 

subjective premises with the observed facts compiled throu<^h the 
comparative and historical methods. Social facts have laws and 



Antliroj)(jhyjkal Miscellanea and Sew Boohs. 77 

conditions of their own. for they are psychological nnits, and 
volition enters largely into their composition ; and if these laws 
are not discovered, Sociology will remam a “ mens acervns,” a 
mere Sorites without cohesion. But this subjective and more 
difficult side of social science should be treated last, and not as so 
often hitherto, built up first like a house without proper founda- 
tion. 

Bearing this neeessit}' in mind, we shall find that the problems 
of Sociology fall into two main classes. The Primanj or descriptive, 
which are concerned with social structure and growth, and may be 
considered both from the comparative and the historical stand- 
point ; and the Secondar;/ or theoretical, concerned with social 
process, law and cause, i.e., with successive steps in the inter- 
action of physical forces and conscious motives.” 

In accoidance with this division, the introdnctory book is 
followed by the descriptive part of the treatise. Book II deals 
with the primary problems from the comparative side, as e.g.. 
Aggregation, Association, Social Composition and Social Constitu- 
tion. Book III treats the same problems from the historical or 
evolutional point of view, as Zoogenic, Anthropogenic, Ethnogeuic 
and Demogenic association. With Book IV the discussion be- 
comes once more theoretical. The author examines the interaction 
of physical and psychical causes, with such difficult points as 
imitation and social choice ; limitation and snrrdvals ; and the 
final conception of society as an organisation for the development 
of humanit}'. 

Whether Prof. Giddings’ theories find universal acceptance or 
not, his book is very valuable as a compact and practical guide 
through the maze of sociological speculation. It is systematic and 
clearly reasoned throughout. 

It will be gratifying to Fellows of the Anthropological Institute 
to note that man}' of the facts quoted in the descriptive part of 
the work are gleaned from past numbers of the Journal. 

There is an index, and a good bibliography, 

“ Through Jungle and Desert, Travels in Eastern Africa.” 

By William Astor Chanler. Macmillan, 1896. 535 pages. 

Although he made no discovery of equal importance with that 
of Lakes Rudolph and Stephanie, Mr. Chanler’s voyage was not 
unproductive of valuable results both from geographical and 
ethnological points of view. He explored the Tana district and 
the country to the north-east of Mt. Kenia in company with 
Lieutenant von Hohnel. and experienced in their full measure the 
v'ici^situdcs of African travel. 

The principal tribes with which the expedition came in contact 
were the Galla, Pokoino, Daitcho, Embe, Msara. and Rendile. 

The Galla and the Pokomo dwell along the Tana River. The 
latter are a simple, kindly people kept in subjection by the Galla, 
bv whom they are protected against the raids of the Somali and 
Wakamba. 



78 Anthrapolornccd Miscellmica and Keic Boohs. 

Tte Daitcho, Embe, and ilsara are tribes living about the 
Jombeni range. The two former are agricultui-al peoples with a 
fixed territory. The Daitcho are a less powerful tribe than the 
Embe and are in a measure subservient to them. Of the Embe 
and their custom.s, the author writes at some length. They are a 
numerous and formidable tribe. Their customs in many ways 
resemble those of the Masai, especially with regard to the influence 
of matrimony upon the status of a warrior. Mr. Chanler, arguing 
from the analogy of language, supposes the tribes of the Jombeni 
range to be immigrants from the Kikuyu of Mt. Kenia. The 
Embe, like the Msara, take no thought for their dead, but cast the 
bodies to the hymnas. 

The Msara are a war-like people, armed after the fashion of the 
Masai, with whom they appear to be akin. With them the expedi- 
tion had to fight quite a pitched battle. They inhabit the west 
slopes of the Jombeni range. 

The most interesting tribe encountered was the Eendile ; and 
to have reached these people the author considers his most impor- 
tant achievement. “ They were a tall, thin race, reddish brown in 
colour, with soft, straight, closely cropped hair, features almost Cau- 
casian in their regularity, and fierce blue eyes.” The Somali in 
the expedition were fascinated by their appearance and said ; 
” These are like our people : they must be Mohammedans.” Many 
words in the Rendile tongue were declared by the Somali to be 
familiar to them. The Eendile are nomadic, possessing large 
herds of camels, horses, sheep, and donkeys : they range over the 
country south-east of Lake Rudolph. They have a curious custom 
of cutting out the navel, leaving a small round hole. They them- 
selves denied all relationship with the Somali or the Galla, the 
authiir conjectures that they may' have come down from the far 
Xoi th, and adds : ‘‘perhaps in some way they are allied to that 
mysterious people called the Shepherd Kings, who, thousands of 
year.s ago, inhabited Egypt.” The Rendile bury their dead in a 
sitting posture in a hole covered by a cairn of stones. They 
proved an impracticable people to deal with. 

A point of some interest is the occnrrence of Beloochi traders in 
the interior of East Africa. It is probable that the close relations 
hot ween the Sultans of Zanzibar and Muscat explain their appear- 
ance so far from their homes. 

Mr. Chanler’s book forms one of the most interesting books of 
African travel that have appeared for a long time •' he has used 
his great powers of observation to advantage, and it is to be hoped 
tliat this v'oyage, which was not his first, may not be bis last. It 
is greatly to be regretted that untoward events cut short his 
expedition before it bad reached its legitimate conclusion. His 
book, which is full of sporting adventures and interesting facts, is 
illustrated, and provided rvith two excellent maps as well as an 
admirable index. 



Anthropological Mizccllanea and Nevj Books. 


79 


“ The Wild North Land.” By General Sir W. F. Butler, 
K.C.B. Tenth Edition. Sampson Low, Marston & Co. 1896. 
12mo. pp. 358. Few books of travel run through as many 
editions as this, and its continued popularity testifies to its merits. 
Starting from Fort Garry on the Red River in the early seventies, 
the author tiavelled northwards to Lake Athabasca ; he then 
turned westwards, and following the course of the Peace River 
through the Rocky Mountains, moved southwards through British 
Columbia to the neighbourhood of New Westminster. The track 
thus lay through the territories of the Assiniboines, Crees, Chippe- 
ways and Beavers, of all of whom General Butler has something 
to say. His enthusiastic love for the great solitudes, and the 
mighty rivers and mountains of the north-west, finds its expression 
in an admirable descriptive style, the truth and poetry of which 
will be felt by all who have ever seen the prairies or crossed the 
Rockies. To these qualities the book largely owes this new 
edition. 

“ Henry Callaway, M.D., D.D. First Bishop for Kafifraria.” 

By Marian S. Benham. 12mo. 368 pp. Macmillan, 1896. 

With the biographical part of this book we are less immediately 
concerned than with the 13th and 14th chapters, the work of 
Miss M. A. Godden, in which a summary of the bi.shop’s labours in 
the cause of ethnology and philology is given. The author of these 
chapters has done well to draw attention once more to Dr. 
Callaway’s books, “ Zulu Folk Tales and Traditions ” and “ The 
Religious System of the Amazulu.” The bishop was an inde- 
fatigable enquirer, and the result of his studies was a most 
valuable body of material of the greatest possible interest for 
anthropological students. One of Dr. Callaway’s chief merits lay 
in his explicit recognition of the importance of carefully 
discriminating the pure native tradition from all accretions of 
foreign origin ; and in all his researches he constantly acted upon 
this principle. Of especial interest is his work on M'itchcraft and 
Divination : upon the latter subject he communicated a paper to 
the Institute in 1871. His pamphlet on the Zulu Language was 
of great service to philology. Such admirable work, produced 
during a life subject to incessant interruptions and the claims of 
his spiritual mis.sion, makes ns heartily endorse the author’s 
judgment that comparative research suffered a very great loss 
when Dr. Callaway entered the Mission Service. 

“The American Anthropologist.” Yol. ix. Nos. 1-5. 
(No. 1.) The Animistic Vampire in New England, by G. R. 
Stetson. A Contribution to Ethnobotany, by J. W. Fewkes. 
(No. 2.) Australian Ground and Tree Drawings, by R. H. Mathews. 
A Vigil of the Gods. — A Navajo Ceremony, by W. Matheus. 
(No. 3.) Seven Venerable Ghosts, by J. W. Powell. 

Expedition to Papagneria and Seriland, by W. J. McGee. 
(No. 4.) Indian Use of Wild Rice, by G. P. Stickney. Racial 
Anatomical Peculiarities, by D. K. Shute. Pueblo Snake 



80 


Anthropological Miscellanea and New Books. 


Ceremonials, by F. W. Hodge. (Jfo. 5.) The Prehistoric 
Culture of Tusayan, by J. W. Fewkes. Left-handedness in North 
American Aboriginal Art, by D. G. Brinton. 

“ Transactions of the Asiatic Society of Japan.” Yol. xxiii. 
No. 1. The Onmun — When Invented ? by W. G. Aston. Note 
snr les Differents Systemes d’Ecritnre Employes en Coree. Par 
Maurice Courant. Tenrikyo ; or the Teaching of the Heavenly 
Rea.son, by Rev. D. C. Greene. Silver in Japan, by G. Droppers. 
Comparison of the Japanese and the Luchnan Languages, by 
Basil Hall Chamberlain. 

“American Journal of Psychology.” Yol. vii. No. 3. A 
Study in the Psychology of Religious Phenomena, by J. H. Leuba. 
Color Saturation and its Quantitative Relations, by A. Kirschmann. 
Minor Studies from the Psychological Laboratory of Wellesley 
College. A Study of Dream Consciousness, by Sarah C. Weed, 
Florence M. Hallam, and Emma D. Phinney. A Laboratory 
Course in Physiological Psychology, vi, by E. C. Stanford. 

“ Revue Mensuelle de I’Ecole d’Anthropologie de Paris." 
Ann. vi. Nos. 1-4. (No. 1.) La Foi et la Raison dans I’Etude 
des Sciences, par G. de Mortillet. Le Dieu Gaulois de Chassenon, 
par Martial Imbert. L’lle de Seins, par Collineau. (No. 2.) 
Echange d’Activite entre la Terre et THomme, par Fr. Schrader. 
Les Divinites a attitude orientale, par H. Galiment. La Taille 
clans un Canton ligure, par Ab. Hovelacque. Nouvelle mutilation 
cranienne neolithique. Le T sincipital, par L. Manouvrier. 
(No. 3.) Alexandre le Grand, par Andre Lefevre. La suture 
metopique et ses rapports avec la morphologie generale dn crane, 
par G. Papillault. Harae^ons en bois encore employes pres de 
Bordeaux. (No. 4.) L’Ethuogenie des populations fran 9 aises, 
par G. Herve. Les Pierres percees de la Haute-Saone, par 
F. Poly. Chronique palethuologique, par G. de Mortillet. 

“ L’ Anthropologic.” Tome vii. No. 1. Etudes d’ethno- 
graphie prehistorique, par Ed. Piette. Notes sur les Pakhalla, par 
le Dr. Macland. Documents ethnographiques sur I’alimentation 
minerale, par le Dr. Louis Lapicque. Les menhirs perces de Tile 
de Chypre, par Emile Deschamps. 

“Field Columbian Museum. Anthropological Series." 

A ol. i. No. 1. Archmological Studies among the Ancient Cities 
of Mexico, by William H. Holmes. Part I. Monuments of 
Yucatan. 



THE JOUEHAL 


OF THE 

A X T H R 0 P O L 0 G I C A L I X S T I T G T E 


OF 

GEEAT BRrrAIX AXD IRELAXE>. 


May 12th, 1896. 

E. W. Bhabrook, Esq., F.S.A., President, in the Chair. 

The Minutes of the last Meeting were read and sigmed. 

The deaths of T)r. IVilberforcf. .^.Mrrii and Captain T. Keexf 
Were aunouneed. 


Mr. H. M'. Setox-K.mik exhiuited and made remarks upon 
a collection of Stone Implements discovered by him in 
Somaliland (see ante page 65). 

The following papers were read : — 

The Cranial Cliaraeteristics of the South Saxons compared 
witli tliose of some of the other Euces of Great Britain.” By 
E. J. Hoetox-S.mith, Esq. 

“ Recent Ob.servations on the Andamanese by Mr. M. Y. 
rouTMAX." By Dr. J. G. Gausox. 

“ Photographic Apparatus for Travellers.” By Dr. J, G. 
Gaksox. 

“ An unpublished Batak Creation Legend.” By Hfrk C. M. 

, Pl.EYTE. 

VOf.. XXVI. 


G 



82 


E. J. Hoktox-Smith. — The Cranial 


The Ckaxial Chaeactes.’Istics of the South Saxoxs compared 
with those of some of the other races of South Buitaix. 
By K. J. Hoetox-S-MIth, B.A., Scholar of St. John’s College, 
Cambridge. 

OwiXG to the obscurity that exists with regard to the various 
races that have from tune to time invaded the British Isles, it 
seemed advisable to make use of the splendid coUection of 
British skulls in the museum at Caiubridue, to .see how far they 
could he grouped together bv a study of their cranial features. 
With this oliject I have examined fourteen South Saxon skulls 
found at Goring in Sussex and presented to the Cambridge 
Museum by C. H. Bead, Esq., F.S.A. With these were found 
many Saxon ornaments, proving tlie skulls to be undoubtedly 
of early Saxon age. Besides these, I have measured twenty 
West Saxon skulls, which were dug up in various parts of 
Berkshire, Wiltshire, Dorset and Somerset, as well a.s two 
“ Celto-Saxon” skulls from Fairford (Gloucestershire), fourteen 
Round Barrow skulls, and lastly, twenty-three Fast Anglian 
skulls. Most of tUe.se last came from Hauxton ; five, however, 
were found in Cambridge itself. 

Sotdh Saxon skidJs. 

Of these fourteen skulls, ten are moles and three females. 
The remaining one belonged to a child, of the female sex, I 
believe, though of this I cannot be quite certain. About half 
are in a gtKol state of preservation; the I'est are rather frag- 
mentary, but do not differ, as far as one can see, in any impor- 
tant respect from the more perfect specimens. Three of these 
crania were so broken that it was impossible to get any of the 
usual imliues fi’om them. I have calculated the indices of the 
child, but of course they have not been included in the attempt 
to deduce the typical indices. These have been drawn from the 
remaining ten skulls. It is a small number, but there were no 
m(jre at my disposal. 

Cranial eapacltij . — There is afaiilyclose resemblance between 
the vari(ju8 crania, as regards their capacity. I was onlv able 
to tike the capacities of five of them (all males), but four of 
tiie.se agree almost exactly in being just megacephalic, with an 
index of 1480. This is a good deal below that of the modern 
English skull, which, according to Topinard, is about 1500. 
The iiide.x of the fifth .skull does approach this latter figure, 
being, in fact, as high as loTO; but the lower figure is certainly 
the most typical. It is in all jirobability to the Round Barrow 
ra^e and the Fast Anglians that we owe the larger size of our 



Characteristics of the South Saxons. i 

crania of to- Jar. As will be shown later, the capacities of thes^ 
two races are remarkably high. 

Cephalic indev . — The South Saxon skull is above all things 
very long. In one ca.se only does the index reach as high as 
81. The rest vary between 74 and 69-3. The typical index 
would seem to be 72. There is no difference between the 
sexes in their cephalic indices, both being extremely dolicho- 
cephalic. The one brachvcephalic skull is probably due tir 
some admixture with the Round Barrow race. As one wouhl 
expect, this liigii index is not frei^uent among the .South Saxon-. 
Thev were the new comei-s, living on the coast where they had 
landed, and they did not advance inland to any large extent ; 
consequently they would have .seen little of the Round Barrow 
race. The West Saxons, ou the contrary, did penetrate into 
the interior, and must have come into most intimate cont.i’t 
with this race, and we naturally find, as I shall show later, tvvo 
tvpes of skull among them: — one more ‘‘Saxon," that is to -av, 
dolichocephalic, while the other has a closer resemblance to die 
broad Round Barrow skull, and is l:)rachycephalic, with an index 
of 81. This is of cour.se a proof that the Britons were not 
exterminated by the Saxons : laige nunibers of tliem must have 
survived the Saxon conquest, and eventual!}' the two races 
fused together. 

Height iudt-c . — These skulls are not only very long, but also 
remarkalily low: the average height index is only 70. The 
female skull agrees with the male in this respect. The height 
index is in eveiy ca,-e equal to or less than the cephalic iiide.x 
length, but never greater. 

Chinthic inde.c . — The orthognathi.sin of the South Saxons is 
also very marked : out of eight indices, there is not one above 
98. They all vary lietween 97'9 and S9‘d, with an average 
index of 94. 

Orbital indev . — The orbital indices are somewhat surprising. 
Before examining these skulls, I fully e.xpected them to be 
mesoseme, like the modern English orltit : Init, to my surprise, 
I found them to be distinctly niicro,senie. two orbits oiilv, out of 
fourteen, being mesosenie. The remainder were micro.seme and 
gave an average index of SI. The comparative lowness of this 
index is brought about bv the extreme orbital width rather than 
by an absolutely small height. 

Xa.iiil index . — So fur the various cranial indices of tbe^e 
South Saxons have agreed closely enough to enable one to see a 
distinct type running throiigli the wlnde series. The nasal 
aperture, liowever, affords a good deal of variation. Tliertr 
seem to be two types, of wbicb. the first is leptorliine, with an 
index of 44, the second mesorbine, with an index of 49. The 

G 2 



84 


E. J. Hoetox-Sj[itii. — The Cranial 


oil] V female index belongs to the mesorhine type. I nmv reniarli 
in passing that tlie one brachycephalic skull in this series is also 
the most leptoiiiiiie : wliether this is a mere aoL'ident or not I 
have not sufticieut data at niy coinniaud to decide. It may be 
merely an exanipl..- of what Collignon says is the rule, that 
hiaeliyeephaliij ^kn 1> are imnally leptoiiiiiie. 

Muso-ntulnr nakr (Oldfield Thoma.s). — This is of .some 
interest in a study of the Saxon race, in view of iMr. Ikirk 
Harrison’s statement that the modern English derive their 
piosopic features from the Angles and not from the Saxons. 
It this were eoirect, we .should expect to find the incle.x high in 
tb.; Ea.st Aimlians and low in the South Saxons. If. however, 
tlie Si nth Saxons liad intermarried with the Ea«t Angliaiis to 
any ‘•■xtent, we should expect to findi two types among the 
Sa.voiis, one typical and idntyi.ipic or nearly so, the other 
jii'osopic. As a matter of fact there are two types among the 
S ixuus, but the ]>io,so)>ic type cannot, it would seem, have come 
f oin the East Anglian.s, as these also 'are nearly platyopie, the 
mean index being 108. It appears that the two types must have 
existed among the Saxons liefore they settled in Britain, and 
that it is owing to the pie\alence of the pro.sopic type that the 
modern English have that feauire. It can hardly, I think, 
iudging from the crania I have examined, have come from 
the East Angliaiis. 

Gineral dtscription . — The Saxon skull has, as can he seen 
from the indices, and still moie hy a glance at the skulls theiii- 
^elve.s, several marked ch.aracteristics. In the hrst place it 
i^, as I have already remarked, very dolichocephalic ; in only 
one instance out of nine does the index iHe above 74, while 
two fall below 70. Seen from above the cranium has a rather 
impel feet oval form ; the wide.st piart is caused hv the projection 
of the parietal bosses, some way between the middle line, and it 
i' owing to this that the skull lias its well-known “ coffin shape.” 
In the frontal region the cranium is comparatively narrow ; the 
Mipraciliary ridges are well-marked, and tlie cranium rises in a 

lightly receding fa.'hion to the bregma, winch, as Barnard 
i >.ivis lias pointed out, is nearly or quite as high as any part of 
the sagittal suture. In the occipital region, the njiper part of 
the occipital bone lias a large pirotulieraiice back'vards ; tbe 
angle at the occipital point is sharp and the lower part of the 
bone is comparatively liorizontal. 

The skulls besides being dolichocephalic are also marked! v 
^apeinoct^phalic. E,ight out of nine indices taken vary between 
71 and 15 , o.S, giving a mean of 70. The extreme length and low- 
ness of these crania are perhaps their two most distingnisliing 
le.itures. Seen from behind the skulls present a beautifully oval 



Characteristics of the South Saxons. 


form : the prominence of the parietal bosses saves them from 
having the eymbocephalic shape of skull with its parallel 
sides, so characteristic of the Long Barrow race. The top of 
the cranium slopes away on each side of the sagittal suture, and 
i,^ by no means flat like the top of the broad-headed Eound 
Barrow crania ; at the same time there is nothing of the nature 
of a keel along this suture, such as we find in “ ill-filled’' skulls. 
The face is fairly long and narrow : the malar bones do not 
]iroject to any large extent, and were it not for the lower jaw, 
the luce would resemlde the rest of the cranium in having a 
rather oval shape. As it is, however, the lower jaw is so 
massive, and the width between it.s two angles is so great, as to 
give the face a sipiare and not an oval form. The jaws do not 
pioject in the least, the whole series being ortliognathons. That 
the face is relatively long is obvious enough with the skulls 
before one, and the t’urious facial indices, as a whole, show this 
point. 

The nose is a striking feature and very prominent. The 
inter-orbital distance, in every case except one, is short, and the 
nose at its root is .sunk in beneath the overhanging glabella. 
At first it is rathei' ti.il, but after a short distance it projects in 
a recurved maimer and ends finally by standing out well in 
front of tlie face. 

As regards the individual skulls, it may be as well to state 
that Xo. Gbo has an Os Inca 20 mm. long and 3o mm. broad, 
and it has also the ossified remains of the pterygo-spinons 
ligament. Xo. 668 has an Os antiepilepticnni. 

The importance of the South Saxon skulls lies in the fact that 
they are doubtless of a purer type than are those of the West 
Saxons. The South Saxons lunde<l on the coast of Sussex, 
eotiipiered the British of that region, and then stayed there. 
Being on the coast, there was every op])ortunity for fresh Saxon 
adventurers to come and swell their numbers, and lieuce, 
though they must have intermarried to some e.xteut witli tlie 
coiupiered mce. tlie tyjie would ]irobably have been kept faivlv 
pure. With tlie We.>t Saxons the case is different: the extent 
of sea board, c unpare 1 with the size of their kingdom, was far 
smaller than was that of the South Saxons, and iiiternianiage 
would in all juohahility have proceed.ed more rajiiilly among 
them. The features would therefore lose their purity, and it 
follows that fur a pure tyjiical Sa.xoii .skull we must look to 
Sussex and not Wessex. The typical Saxon indices will he 
found at tlie end of tlie piaper in a tabulated form, coiiip.uvdl 
with those of the otlier races to he described. 

Fruiora . — Witli tlie crania were found aho tliree male femora, 
two of Mliicli are reiiiarkahly platymeric. Tlie lengths of tlii 'e 



8G 


E. J Hortox-Smitii. — The Craaial 


ieniuia are 429, 447 and 449 mm. respectively. From the table 
yiveti in Topinard, I c-aleiilate that the lioi^^lits of the three 
individuals would he 5 feet 3f inches, 5 feet 6|^ inches and 
feet t )5 inches, with a mean height of o feet 74 inches for tiie 
laee. The first femur is not platymeric : its index is as hiyii a< 
I'r4. It is the tvo hitter that exliilnt this peculiarity, theii 
indices being 71'2 and 72'7. 

Jl Lit Si'.riJili. 

From a study of tlie .South Saxon crania, I concluded that 
the Sussex Sa.xons were not an ab■^olutely pure race; they had 
intermarried to a small extent with tlie British inhabitants. 
This fusion of the two races is far more obvious among the 
41’cssex Saxons, and can be clearly seen by an examination of 
their cranial features. 

ihjihdlic ti>ih\r . — Taking the cephalic index fir«t, there are, 
it' 1 have already mentioned, two tyj’Cs of skull among them, 
it bioad-heiided type and a long-heailed t'vje. The hitter i.s 
t'.mnd more often than the former, and fiom its closer resem- 
bhince to the South Saxon skull, must be coii'iilered as the 
moie typical: its cephalic index is about 75. The other type 
has a much higher index of 81. The brachyeej'halisni comes, 
no doubt, from some native admixture. TVe see the effect of 
this fusion also in tlie hei.nlit index. This, in the Bound Barrow 
luce, is, according to Thuinham, 76. T shall try and show later 
that there are two types of Bound Barrow .skulls, hut the imh-x 
I'f what I will for the present call tlie more typical, is about 
7s. It will be rememheied that the height index of the typical 
s.-xnn is 7U. We have tliu.s the Bound Bariow broad-heads 
w til a height index of 78 and tlie Saxons with an index of 70. 
^liiioiig the West Saxons we find a.gaiii tw o types of altitudinal 
index, the fir.«t being 71, the second 74. The latter indicates 
the fusion with the pre-Saxon race. Tlie cephalic and height 
indices wliich T liave found for the West Saxons agree alnio.^t 
exactly with the mean of .some twenty West Saxon indices 
taken at random from the ‘’Crania Britaniiica.” 

L'r/niijit caiKiritif. — A.s regards the cranial capacity, there is 
I'l’aetically no ilittereiice between the Soutli and West Saxons. 
It anything, the M e.^t Saxons have rather the smaller capacitv 
of the two. I was only able to take the capacitv of three male 
skulls. (Jt these one was ahiiormally microcejihalic ; hut the 
other two have almost ideiitic.il capacities ( I4.5u ami 14l)0 c.c ), 
cud 1 think we may fairly pmt the mean capacity at about 1450, 
toat is to sax’, just megacephalic. This inference seems 
Mil.ported by the capacities of the female skulls, of whicli I 
ha\e four. The mean of these i.s IdtlU, or luO Ic'S than the 



Charade fist ics of the South Saxons. 


87 


male capacities : this is not more than -what would be accounted 
for by the difference of sex. 

Gnath ic i n dcx . — The gnathic index is curious. Eight skulls out 
of twelve are orthognatlious, the mean index being 94. Of the 
rest, one is mesognathous and the otlier three are on the border 
of iiieso- and prognathism. Two out of the latter three indicts 
were derived from male skulls, the third from a female. It is 
difficult to see where the prognathous type can have come from. 
It cannot be due to admixture with the Eound Barrow race, for 
these are orthoguathou.s. If, on the other hand, these two 
distinct types were present among the West Saxons at the time 
when they invaded Britain, we should expect to tind them also 
among the South Saxons, who were presumably niembers of the 
Same race. This, however, is imt the case. It would seem 
therefore that the prognathism was due to admixture with 
other races, subse(pieut to their compiest of "Wessex ; but even 
so, we are no nearer the solution of the cpiestion, inasmuch as 
tliere were no prognathous races in England at that time. It may 
be meiely an individual peculiarity, but I think the percentaue 
is too large for that. All that we can say is that there are 
these two types, an orthognatlious and a prognathous type. 
"Where the latter came from I have as yet no idea. 

Nasal iadfx. — lt is difficult to distinguish any definite type 
of nose among the skulls exaiiiiiied. I have fifteen indices, of 
which the highest is 58 and the lowest 40 ; the intervening 
indices arrange themselves more or le.ss regularly throughout 
this large gap : — 40 p.c. are platyrhine, oo p.c. jmesorhiue, and 
27 p.c. leptorhiiie For the present I cannot say more than that 
there appear to be three distinct types of noses— types which 
merge into one another. "Where the platyihine type conies irom 
I do not know ; not from the Bound Barrow race, for these are 
leptorhiiie. It is interesting to note that in the South Saxons 
it is the leptorhiiie type that predominates, the platyrhine being 
entirely absent. This is just the reverse of what is found 
nmnnu the West Saxons. 

Urhtdd index . — Tiie orbital index is more simple. Here 
again tliere seem to be two types, a microseme type with an 
index of 81 and a inegaseme with an index of 90. But this we 
.should expect. Tlie iiiicru.seiiie group wliicli is the more 
numerous has the typical Saxon index, that is to say, the same 
index as the South Saxon skulls, 81. The inegaseme group 
is smaller and gets its high index presumably from the broad- 
headed Eound Barrow race. 

With regard to the face, it may he noticed that these skulls 
are platyopic, with a iiieiii index of 1(I7. The marked prosopic 
type, which was found among some of the South Saxuiis, is here 



88 


E. J. Hoetox-Smitii. — The Cranial 


aliment, the hicjliest index out of twelve heing only 110. The 
face itself is fairlv long and namov ; there is not much ditferenee 
ill this respect hetweeii the West and South Saxons. The 
West are perliaps a little shorter in face than the South. This 
slight change is in the ilirection of the typical Eound Bairow 
race. 

A study of these West Saxons seems to show conclusive! v 
that they are not pure Saxons, nor even as pure as the South 
Saxons, hut Saxon with a British admixture. It would seem 
furtlier that the British element predominates largely in the 
lii.strict round Melkshani on the Avon. There are four skulls 
from IMelksliam among those that I have examined: they are 
all brachycepdialie, and are obviously far more closely allied to 
the British type of skull than they are to the Saxon. In the 
rest of Wessex it is the Saxon type that predominates, though 
it must not be supposed that the British element is absent; it 
is pre.sent, and here and there .stani’ps its mark to a greater or 
less extent on the Saxon crania ; a*, for instance, on the crania 
from the CirenceAer district ; at least this is so, if the two 
skulls from Fairforcl may be considered as typical. They are 
labelled “ t'elto-Saxon.” linfortunately we have only two of 
these crania in the Cambridge IMnseiim, but as they agree with 
each other very ehisely in their indices and in their .general 
ajipearanee. I think 1 shall not be far wrong in considering 
them fairly typical of the district. They have a most marked 
Saxon appearance and are certainly more Saxon than British : 
at the same time they are, I think, rather more British than are 
the crania from Berksldre and some other parts of Wessex. A 
glance at the incli e; at tlie end of the paper will show that 
their altitudinal index is higher, tlie face is shorter and their 
cranial capacity large)', in all of wliich points they tend towards 
the British type. In most of Wiltshire, with the exception of 
tlie West and especially the Xorth-West part.s, the (‘rania belong, 
broadly speaking, to the Saxon type, hut the three skulls from 
Haruhaiii, near Salishury, are hrachycephalic, or neaily so. I 
think it (piite possible, therefore, tliat there may he a “ British 
colony’' here as well as in the Avon Valley. The same thing 
may perl aps be said of Knowle in Dorset, as the only skull I 
have from that distiict is nearly hrachycephalic. 

riicse (ih'i rvation.s of mine afford a striking confirmation of 
the views which Dr. Beddoe has lately put forward in this 
dounud (-Tuly, 18h.:i). Dr. Beddoe after a careful examination 
of the polnur of the hair and eyes of the natives of Wessex, coii- 
( hides that “the population of Ea.st Gloucestershire, like that of 
Central Oxdudsliire. is hiigelv Saxon ; that of the countrv round 
Cirencester is scarcely k-s so, while that of the Upper' Valiev 



CJtd.niifi I c-Jics of the South ScijCfiis. 


89 


of the Bristol Avon contoiiis a nnich larper prt-Paxon element.” 
I have not vet had an oppoiUiiiky of exauiiuin'i any crania of 
the East (lloncestershire district, hut I eritiiely a^iee with 
Dr. Beddoe in saving that th.e irre-Saxon elerneiit is to be chiefly 
found in the U])per Valley of the B.ri.stol Avon, and that the 
population of the country round Ciieucester is scarcely less 
Saxon than is that in the Eastern parts of 'Wessex. In the re.-t 
of 'Wessex Dr. Beddoe found tlie 8'axoii hair and eye colour to 
preponderate greatly. It would he iiitere.sting to see whether the 
colour test suji] orts the idea of a British colony near Salisbury. 
I think it is more likely than not that it would do so. 

On the wliole then, I think we may consider that the disposition 
of the two races as given above is correct ; if so, there can be no 
doubt “ that the West Saxons settled numerously in the "Upper 
Thames Valley before they began to interfere with the inhabit- 
ants of the Valley of the Bristol Avon.” 

Of peculiarities in the indi\idnnl ciania of this series, it will 
be enough to mention that the metopic suture persists in two 
cases out of seventeen (Xos. b.rO and obG) wliile an Os Inca is to 
be seen in Xo. 5d0. 


Hov.net Buri-ov: Ituee. 

We now come to the Bmind Barrow race, who were supposi d 
to have come over to England fi'om the continent, armed with 
bronze weapons, by means of which they conquered the neolithic 
Long Barrow lace. Intermarriage and fusion subsequently 
followed. If this view is right, we ought to find two types of 
skull in these Bound Barrows, one more typical, resembling tl'.e 
race when they first invaded Britain, the ■iiber less typical, witli 
feature.s like tliose of the Long Barrow race. An intermediate 
set should exist as well, in some points resembling- one type, in 
others the other type. That these two type-^ do exi.st, I think 
tliere carr l.ie no doubt. To fii tnly establish tlris fact nrr exntrrin- 
atiorrof more skrtlls tharr I have been able to avail myself of will 
be necessary, but the two types are ab.solutely di.stinct, so far as 
I carr jitdge at present. 

The characteristics of each type may be briefly stated as 
follows ; — 

Type I. The skirlls corrformitre: to this type are rrregn- 
cephalic, orthogrrathous, leptiuhine, dolichocepb.alio, 
ta]ieinocephalic, trdcroserne orr the whole, long-faced 
arrd prosojiic. In fact they resemble the Long Barrow 
Crania, and this type irray therefore be called the 
“ Xeolithic Tvpe.” 

Tvpe 11. Tire skulls of this type are megaeephalic. or- 



90 


E. J. Hortox-Smitii. — The Cranial 


tlioL;natlious. le}itoihint?, bracliyceplialie, acroceplialic, 
iiiesoseiiie (in some cases nearly nie^aiseineX sliort- 
faceJ and platyopic. This may lie called the “ Bronze 
Type,” as it almost certainly represents tlie type of 
features characteristic of the iinnnm'ants who made 
nse of bronze weapons, before they lo^t their piU'ity 
through intermairiage with the Long Barrow race. 

A glance at the following indices will mate this clear. It is 
a dangerous thino to nuess at indices when they cannot he 
cah ulated, but Xo. I'.'T is m.arkedly dolichocei>halic and tapeino- 
cephalic, while Xu, Idl i.s eipially broad. Xo, 177 is moderately 
i'l'oad; Xos. 175 and 188 are moderately high; Xo. 191 fairly 
low and microseme. 

The skulls are arranged in order of their cephalic indiee.s, 
beginning from the lowest. (See p. 91.) 

As can he easil}- seen, Xo, 193 rcseinble.s the neolithic type in 
the length of its face ; it is truly intermediate in its cephalic and 
height indices, and it resemble.s the bronze tyi^e in its orbital 
and naso-malar indices. It therefore justifies its position in 
every way. 

The orbital indices are more erratic than the rest. As a 
whole they full in their proper places, hut there are a few 
exceptions, as in skulls 18S and 192. These, however, are not, 
to my mind, .sufficient to np.set the positions 1 liave assigned to 
the orbital indices, especially wlien it is considered that in both 
these eases, while one orbit is at variance with the rule, the 
('tlun i> in complete accordance with it. On the whole then, 
1 think we may jay tliat the neolithic type has a low orbital 
imlcx, while the bronze type has a high index. 

iliere is one more point tliat might he mentioned, as it 
iiidii.-ates in another way the fusion of these Bronze and X^eo- 
litliic races. In all the crania of the bronze type the parietal 
bosses are very prominent, and in most of the neolithic type this 
is tile case also, giving these latter a coffin-''ha)ied form of skull, 
like' that chai aider istic of the 8axons ; Imt in Xo. 192 the bosses 
are not very couspieuou.s, and lire .skull has tire flat parallel sides 
•SO typii'al ot tlie I.ong Barrow race. The prominence cf the 
parietal bosses in the other members of the neolithic type is 
prejuniably due to the bronze type asserting its predominance 
in tills respect. It may lie in part caused by, or at least in 
lelation to, the large size of the brain. ith sucli a high cranial 
capacit} it is natural to suppose that the paiietal bosses would 
]iiojei t to assist in h’nding room for the Inain. Tin? size of the 
internal cayiacity is very striking. The cajiacities are. I think, 
tuuh accurate, but owing to the artificial holes in most of these 



Clin rad eristics of the South So cons. 


91 




92 


E. J. Hoetox-Smith. — The Cranial 


crania, tliey were difficult to take, and the results must only be 
regarded as approxiiiu.te. 

Among the bronze tyjie the glabella and supraciliary ridges 
are not very prominent, and the top of the cranium is ratlier 
flat. The neolithic type, on the contrary, has a very conspicuous 
glabella and supraciliary ridges, and though theie is no keel 
along the sagittal suture, the top of the cranium is anything but 
flat ; it is more roof-shaped. A persistent metopic suture is to 
be seen in tliiee skulls out of fomteen (Xos. 1G8, 178, 184) 
Os^a Inca exist in skulls 184 and 194. 

J (lies. 

Before passing on to the Ea^t Anglians, I may perhaps refer 
for a moment to the Jutes, ilr. Howorth helieves that the 
East Saxons, who inhabited Essex and Middlesex, were members 
of the same race as the South Saxons. Together they inhabited 
the whole of the south-east comer of Englaiid under the common 
name of “Saxons." Later the Jutes landed on the coast of 
Kent, and inserted themselves as a wedge between the Saxons 
lying to the north of ilie Thames and those to the south. As 
they Were no longer a coutenninous jieople in tlie same sense as 
before, the names of South, Mhldle and East Saxons were 
applied to the three divisions of this race. If tliis view is 
CMi'rect, the East >axons should have the same cranial indices 
and features as the South Saxons. I hope to see later on 
wlietlier tliis is so or nut, but as there are no E.ssex skulls in 
our museum here, I have decided to leave it for the present. 

As legards the cranial features of the Jutes, the chief difficulty 
in the way of deterudniug them is the want of skulls. There arc 
four cejiludic and two height indices of Kentish skulls given in 
the “Crania Britanniea.” The ceplialic indices are 77, 74. 77 
and the mean of these being 7o'7d. The t\ui height indices 
arc 74 and 7'i, with a mean index of 74 5. JVe have one skull 
at Cuuibriilge, whidi came from Oziiigell in Kent. It was too 
hiokeii for me to he able to calculate the cephalic and lieiglit 
iu'iiees. but it is nearly ydatyi-buie (52'7). ju.st mesoseme, with 
ail average imhex of 84 for its two eye.s, orthoLUiatlious {!)4'2), 
and platyopic lOij'o). Ihe face is moileratelv long, the upper 
iiu ial index of Viivhow being 70-9. It is a female skull. 

East Aiiijlians. 

Lastly, I have a few words to say about the East Anglians. 
blur museum is jiurticidarly rich in skulls isf this race. I liave 
exaiiiiiied. twenty-three of the most perfect specimens. A glance 
at the indices at the end of the paper will .show tlieir main 



Characteristics of the Sovt/i Saxons. 


93 


characteristics, but it luay be as well to make a few remarks 
about them liere. 

Their cranial cnpncitij is distinctly large. One skull falls, it 
is true, to 1220, but this is more or less balanced by one with a 
capacity of 1670, and, as four out of ten agree f.drly closely in 
having an index of lobO, I think it wouhl be best to consider 
this as typical. 

Cephalic and heviht indices . — These skulls are dolichocephalic 
and tapeinocephalic ; not so imicli so, however, as was the case 
witli the South Saxons. The East Anglian indices are 74 and 
71 respectively, numbers which agree exactly with those drawn 
from the “ Crania Britannica.” 

Gnathic index . — (Irthognatldsin is here the rule. The typical 
index seems to be 96, somewhat lugher than among the South 
Saxons ; these latter had an index of 94. Among the East 
Anglians, one skull rises to 10.5, one to 101, and three to 100, 
liut the great majority are orthogiuithoas. 

Orbited index . — The orbits are mesciseme, with a mean index 
of 85. This is higher than that of the South Saxons, who had 
very micr.jseme eyes (81). 

Ncosal index . — The East Anglians and South Saxons both 
agree in having the two tyjies of no.ses, one leptorhine (mean 
index = 44), the other mesorhine (mean index = 50). There is 
no ditl'ereiice either according to sex in this index. 

Xaso-rnnlar index . — With regard to the naso-malar index I 
fail, as I have already said, to conlirin Mr. Park Harrison’s 
theory that the predominance of prusopic faces among modern 
Englishmen is due to the East Angli.iiis. I find out of nineteen 
indices only four that are prosopic, and there can be no doubt 
that tb.e true index is 108; that is to say, the face is nearlv 
platyopic. The face, a.s a whole, jiniged by the male indices, is 
narrower and longer than that of the Saxon, an.l curiously there 
is a distinct ditlerence between the two sexes in the length of 
the face, the male facial lengtli index being considerably higher 
tlian tliat of the female. I have not been able to discover any 
such dilference in the other races I have examined. 

In almost all the male East Anglians, the glabella and supra- 
eiliary ridges are well marked. Viewed from behind the eiania 
hav'e a synmietiical oval shape, and some of them have a simi- 
larly ov'al form when seen from above; others, however, aie 
more like the Saxon crania in being rather cotfin-shaped. This 
m.ry perhaps indicate a slight fusion between the East Anglians 
and East Saxons. The face seen from in front has a si^uare, 
determined look about it, and in some ways it also has a Saxon 
appearance. 

Tiic metopic suture persists in three cases out of twenty- 



94 


E. J. HortoN’-Smith. — The Cranial 


three (Xos. 382, 401, 51 < ), while Ossa luca are present in two 
'375,517). 

Summary. 

The main points of this paper may be briefly recorded as 
follows : — 

1. The South Saxons were not an absolutely pure race; tliey 

had a little Britisli blood in tliein, though the amount 
was probably very small. The Wessex Saxons were 
less pure than the South Saxons, owing to their more 
frequent intermarriage with the Britisli population. 

2. 1 am able to confirm Dr. Eeddoe's researches to the eftect 

that the pre-Saxon population predominates in the 
l’[jper Valley of the Bristol Avon, and that the 
population of the Cirencester district is chiefly Saxon, 
though containing a slightly larger admixture of 
British blood than is the case in East and South 
Wessex, 

There are two types of .skulls in the Eound Barrows ; 
one like the Long Barrow skull, while the other type 
is more “ Britisli.” This fact conflrms the belief that 
the broad-headed immigrants of the Bronze age con- 
quered the Neolithic race and then fused with them. 

4 The luwt Angliaus have a form of skull slightly ditt'erent 
to that of the South Saxons. It is rather broader, less 
tapeinocephalic, and nieso.senie instead of micro^eme : 
the face is also relatively longer, and the cranial 
capacity larger. 

5. The=e skulls do not bear out the theory of Mr. Park 
Harrison, that the prosopism of the modern English 
is derived from the East Angliaus. It would seem 
rather to have come from the South Saxons. 

In conclusion I should like to express my thanks to Profe.ssor 
Tilacali^tcr for his kind help and advice to me during ihe course 
of this paper. 



a\ milixM* i)f skulls examined. 



From tlio “ Urania liritanniua.” “ Male ludicoa. 


Taiu.k II. -ltduiiil narrow Race. 


E. J. HouTOX-SMiTtT. — The Cranial 


9G 


■- Pl-'SVIO' 

.J 3 [UtU- 05 e>K; 


Ad, ui ;ei. 5 r;i la-Id;;; 


■O' .111.1,1 A I 

Xdpin [!'! lyj 


xa^i’jr [I prj a 'Jd ") 


•( uLiPaiipH) 

x‘>piii '‘pii 


•sapni I'BsRv; 


•xa^’Ui ■'iqiBUp 




‘xapui iqrt iji 


'Xdf ui 01 


{ITI'{3 P idquius; 




'I’milk TI. — Koujul llamUv M-.u'O—conlinupd. 


Cliavadcristics of the South Stwons. 


97 


' 

■('sBrnoqx PiagPIO> ' o 

xopui it:[L’ra-OaE^ O 

! 

i-'5 


CO 

i 

1 

xoput jaddj. x 

! 

VI 

X 

1.^ 

X 

1 

1 

1 -M 

xapai [PioBj IE 40 X ^ 

1 

cc 

1^ 

'ix 

o 


1 

•(uusninoH) j 

xopui ippuj aoJd ■> 1 

1 

1 

ro 

o 

r 

1 

1 

1 

*fUUEtU[[OX{) , 1 

xapi'i {HI >1:^ [BiOX ‘ 

1 

1 


1 

1 

1 

c; 

‘XJPUI lESEX I’-N 

1 

3s 


»o 

1 

1 


•sapai 




'AjpudBo irmco j 


'lapiii ;u2pii 


I ! 

1 i i ! i ^ 


•X^pUl OTI'BlpIoO 




r ^ I ^ 1 i 






- o 


I 

I o ::: 


tt w 

c = 


= x:S 


^ 1 ^ 

1 


*<3 1 ^ 

C- 

c+ 

a, ^ 

01 




cc a 


r; Ci 


I'- 

' ’■■ ' 


^ <— 1 




c 

cS 

o 

a 


VOL. XXVT. 



1 1 Siixdii (‘riiiiiii. 


98 E. J. Horton-Smith. — The Cranial 


•(S^mom piagpio) 

X 9 pui 

o 1 

□0 ! 

o 

^ 1 

1 

1 

1 

rH 

i 

1 

i ! 

1 

1 

T-KOT 

.. ! 

II 

1 

i 

X 

0 

1 j 

1 

•(ioq 9 jT_Y) 

xspui 

1 

i 

1 

i . 


CO 

t> 

C: 

0 

t- 

1 

T 2 

“ 1 

^ 1 

! 

1 

■(noniliA) 
sapui [BioBj iBjox 

1 

1 

1 

Cxi 

1 

i| 


i 1 

Cl 

1 

1 

xapui iadd^^ 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

I 

1 

i 1 I 1 

- 1 
^ i 0 

1 

1 

•^auBrauox 1 
xapui [Biov; pnox 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

1 

! 

X 1 CO 
t- 1 
£- 1 X 

1 

i 

x' 

K 

■ 3 .I 5 X 

L-a 

$ 

1 

i 

T 

!: 

X 

£>» 

1 

'JZ 

X 

X 

1 

1 

« i 1 

■iqSi'j 1 1 

1 


£ 

1.0 

»o 

X 

1 

i I ^ 

i- 

X 

j 

1 

•xaput i^suvc i o 

1 o 

1 

o 


• 5 

X 

lO 

1 

0 


0 

X 

1 

! 

•xapul oiqiBnf) i | 

1 

; 1 

1 

•M 

T 


Cl 

ri ■ i 

s 

a 


1 

i 

•illOBdeO 

t 

] 

1 

" 


,• 

1 


1 _ 

1 

1 

'xapni iqSpH 

X 

t>- 

lO 

f> 



!•» 

ic. 

CC , C' 
t> X 

10 1 

g s 

-? 

! 

to ' 

i> 

'xapuT ott^qdo^ 

i> 

X 

cc 

t-. 

X 

a 

o 

X 

i 

1 

t-* 

X 

7 * 1 ” 

Lt 1 10 
t- • Jr- 

Ip 

CO 

t'- 

0 

t- 

C 5 

X 

(p 

X 

TT 

o 

L. 

i . 

‘ 

' 1-^ 

~C 

; S 

< . 

to 

5 ; 

5 

b£ 5 

P 

r • • ■ ■ 1 

X 

5“ 

£I 

ee 

hH 

r~l 

. 

«e 

5 

b 

d 

1 

T 

c 

to 

d 

u 

Q 

I 71 

_£c 

I c 

5 

• 

u 

.-*• 

0 

X 

c 

t£ 

c 

c 

j -3 

ti 

X 

0 

s 

tr 

a 

0 

d 

d 

CJ 

C 

0 

0 

L. 

« 

* 

1 > 

3 


1 *tD t *-C j ^ 1 *0 

! 

j 

1 

! ^ 

•0 

1 0 

CrK 

Tl 

•|P.:^S }0 jaqinnK 

1 

1 ::: 

1 " 

! ” 

I 

! 

1 ^ 

1 ^ 

en 

CC 

‘ \o 

1 

\o 

1 

uO 

0 

iO 

1 

1 X 

1 ^ 
LO 

lO 

0 

Ci 

0 

(M 

1 

0 

0 



Tauib II [.—West Saxon Crania — conlimicd. 


Characteristics of the South Saxons. 


99 



lO 

„ 1 

-4 

- I 


1 

- 1 

1 


(SBmoaxppBpto) 

.‘-A 



• 1 


1 1 

• ! 

1 

J>. 

X30UI iBrein-ojEsr 

o 







X 1 

o 


i-H 


^ 1 

1 

” 1 

1 

1 

i—i 1 


•(Moqoiiv) 



1 


V 


i 

1 


x^pai iBtocj iad.d_i ' 



Cn. 

o 

i 

to 

c 

X 

£ j 

1 j 

I> 

! 

•(.iioqoji\) 1 

9 


X 

1 

i-^ 

1 


CO 


X 

XapUT IBIOSJ IBJO.T, 1 


X 

X 


o 

1 

CO 

cr- 

1 


T— 1 


-H 






f-H 

q'uuBuiuoM) i 

1 



9 

9 

1 

1 

1 


X^pui [VIOBJ 1 

! 


u-5 

o 

o 

X 

1 

1 

1 

o 

•(uuBtauo'\£) 

i 

I 


X 


1 

i 

f 

X 

x^put [spB; [Biox 

! 

1 

u'a 

X 

X 

80 



I 


X i 

cc 



r- 

ua 



>-■= 



X 


1-H 

kO 

Cv| 

1 

X 



;; ; 


X 

X 

X 




X 

— 1 









X X 

"d 



o 

CO 



X 



- ' 'ntSiH 

*o 

-4i 

t'- 

lO 

o 


o 


i 


* 

00 

I'- 


t'- 


X 

a 

! 










CO o ^ : 


?c 

X 


X 



X 

i> 

CO CO j 

'XB^Ul TBSES;’ 

itZ 

o 

o 

X 

X 



C3 



o 


o 


o 


cO 

iO 



X 

X 


9 

CO 




a 3 

•X3pm orq;Eu£> 


o 


o 

»o 

1 

X 

1 


o 








i-t cq 


r—i 













o 

o 

O 




•.iapEdeo 1 naEJ3 

i 

1 

i 

CO 


X 

CO 

1 

1 
















c; 


(M 

Ol 


•*f — 

•xspai 



1 


o 


oi 

1 






o 

1> 


i> 





X 

p.^ 

rs 

X 


lO 


O lO 

■xapni oiTRad^rv 

o 

C5 

X) 

lO 

CO 

X 


1 




t>- 

i> 


i> 


l> 








CD 


t 

K 









c3 


Q 



; 

; 


; 


• 









B 


i 

c 

ZQ 


o 

rzz 

SJ 


*- 


•« 

c 



« 

1 

O 

72 


g 

'q ’ 


P 

* 

2 


Pi 



1 ^ 


5 

5 



! 1 

~i 

3 

o 


<c 

tb 

c 

o 

c 


1 c 

D 

’ tj 

X 

5 

1 = 

* kT* 


OQ 



! ^ 


- 

X 

1 ^ 

O 


Q 

h-i 

<5 

•x^S 

C- 


i oi- 
1 

c-^ 

CH- 

04- 

C- 

h 



1 


i X 

J 

i 

1 

1 

1 

I 



i ** 

IT- 

1 o 

o 

1 ^ 

i ub 

cb 

!>. 

1 


1 

1.0 

lO 


1 

1 

1 

1 

1 


i 


r: 


7-, 

C 
X , 

< I c: 

a: I — 


! ~ 






i!5l 


H 2 



TAiihK IV. — South Suxon f'raiiiu. 


100 


E. J. IIoKTOx-S-Mim 


. — The Cranial 


•3cin3Tiipprtr:n^ j 
\JpUt i'ii^ClU-OSBX 

X 

■ 1 
"1 

X 

o 




1 

1 

1 

X 

X 

1 

« ^ 

•( uoqoiT_Y) 
xipni p I3EJ 

L't 

- 1 

1 

X 

o 

»>• 

CO 

f— f 



1 

1 

1 

X 

i> 

1 

01 

1> 

■/ U01pJI_\) 

sopui piDCI 


w 

1 

1 


VO 

VO 

5i 

1 

1 

1 

X 

X 

rH 

1 

c: 

•• ua^rnqoq') : ■ 

x-ipui [rncj Jod'T^]. j C 

g 

o 

' 

VO 

VO 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

VO 

■iuurfn{ro^) 1 

xspui lent;; leiox 

•T-'pxiT 

$ 

V 

i 

i 

X 

X 

X 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

VO 

X 

1 

- 

C5 

"T* 

VO 

X 

X 


X 

■piQ 

1 

1 

9 

X 

9 

VO 


y. ' T 

■i - 

B ' * 


X 

lO 

X 

1> 

t'- 

V-O 

t'. 

1 

1 

I 

1 

1 

X 

% -^qSm i c; 

® 1 1 •!> 

« 

X 

xi:) 

2 

»o 

CO 

X 

VO 

X 

X 

n 

s 

1 

1 

o 

X 

X 

N 

X 

X 

•X9pnt ntqjgoo 

w: 

2 

« 

X 

2? 

X 

55 

5 

X 

o 

c; 

1 

1 

VO 

a 

X 

1 

•<« 

C5 

•iinrdeo inawo 

o 

X 

1 

1 

LO 

1 

1.0 

VO 

X 

1 

1 

1 

O 

X 

rH 

•x^pat iq?i9ii 


X 


X 

t^ 

X 

o 

o 

I> 

l> 

il 

tP 

O 

i>. 

1 

! 

o 

i> 

•x-ipui oqvqdA^ 

X 


1 

1 

1 

1 to 
o 

1 

U- 

1 Ol 
! W 

i> 

o 

t- 

7* 

t> 

Ci 

o 

X 

05 

X 

oi 


X 

1 o 

u 

! X 

! I 

I ^ 

X 

o 

m 

X 

X 

fee 

6 

X 

o 

J1 

X 

fee 

6 

: 

1 ^ 

1 ^ 

1 2 

X 

1 O 

1 ^ 

1 

1 : 
u 

II 

j ^ 

1 '§ 

1 3 

X 

a 

* 

X 

fee 

*? 

X 

il 

r. 

X 

X 

o 

a 

X 

o 

m 

92 

X 

tl 

■2 

: 

X 

I o 

I °o 

0 

1 X 

! 

I 3 

1 ^ 

X 

u 

oa 

n 

3 

X 

fee 

.5 

"2 

c 

d: 

o' 

X 

fee 

M 

1 -J 

‘X -j- *0 

! 

\ 

1 

! ^ 


1 1 

1 1 



o 

0“+- 

il 


|M ^0 ;:unx 1 -3 


j 2^ j KS 

iiit 

j X 
o 

i 

X 

t'. 

X 

'O 

1 

1- 

o 

!>. 

X 

i 



'I'AiiLK V. — East Anj^lian Erania. 


Chnractcristks of the South Saxons. 101 








CO 

1 

oi 


CO 



^SBUIv^qx PPUPIO^ 













oc 

tj;- 

1 

2 

i 

H ! 

X 

X 

o 

X 


c 






rH 


i 


1—1 





j 

- 1 

1 


X 










'T' [ 



I 








xopuT ia*dd \ * 

‘ i 



! 

X 

I 

X 

E- 1 

! 

bl 

X 

E- 

t> 

X 

X 

X 



1 

? 1 



1 

[ 


1 



r 


s.-'pai iBpCi [L’+i'X 

i-i 

E- 1 


I 

i 


X 

1 

X 

Cl 


‘ 



1 





^ 1 







1 

1 

i i 

1 , 

9- 

[ 

V i 

1 i 

J 1 

1 i 

1 

1 1 

1 

1 

xopui [gi.ib; i iddj 

1 

1 i 


lib 


lib 



! 




•(uucuiiio M) 

1 

1 i 

! 1 

i 

1 

! 1 


1 1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

lEpBi PiOX 


1 



' 1 









- 


o 




X 

f 




x 

■xapui TCbCV 




>1 

O 

E- 

X 

X 


X 


o 


'T' 

o 

“ 

- 





lib 







_s, 

I'- 

c-l 


-H 


X 

Cl 


X 

X 1 i: 





X 

CO 


lb 


E"* 

— 

X 

’5 — ; 

X 

t> 

t'- 

X 

X 

X 

56 


X 

X 

X 



-M 



c: 


trj 

X 

r; 

c: 

X 


~r ’ 


-a 






x-^ 

1'- 

CO 

w 


ic i 

^ i - 

X 

X 


X 


X 

X 


X 

X 






bl 

r; 


rH 


'C; 


lb 


o 1 

•xapni oiiiiBuo 


c 


cc 

X 


X 



- 

s 


OU 





















o 


o 


>b 

1 

'ilpcdca puivJ3 






I'b 


! 

E> 

Cl 

X 

1 




I'O 

1 

lib 

lb 

1 


■*7 


i 1 









- 


' ' 



! 

X 

— 

E>. 

« 

X 

X 

'-f 



X 

» ; 

•lapui luSiin 

I X 

1 

1- 


— S* 


■2 


i- 

E-- 

X 

5 i 


1 

i — • 




cr. 

'O 

i 9 

X 

V 

n 

, 1 

•xapui oi[Bqd-‘3 





lib 

CO 

o 

1 ■?! 

bi 


lb 

! 1 


I-- 



E- 



i 




1 


1 

1 

I 


i 

1 



■ 


r 

j 

1 

1 . 

: 

: 

; 

1 

■ 1 

1 

o 

. 


• 

• 

• 




• 




a 








j 





r* 








\ 


c. 

1 Sd 

t£ 1 


c 

c 

1 



o 

o 

o 

1 Q 

r 

Tc 


~o 1 



>< 


X 

X 



X 


•-J 


! 1 




ci 

1 ~ 

5S 

:2 

=: 

1 = 

S3 

=: 


5 1 


i t: 

1 

— 


i "* 


i 

i 




1 ^ ' 


1 

1 ^ 


•^5 

*o 

, 

! ^ 


1 

! ^ 

1 ^ 

’ ^ i 



1 

■ 

1 ^ 

1 

i ■* 

1 

1 "M 

j -4 

bl 


1 

^ 1 

qpiq-: JO laquinx 

1 ^ 

-1 

1- 

1- 

\u 

po 

X 

1 ^ 

! ^ 


1- 


l-b 



Tahlk V. — Knsl t'rimia — con! hived. 


102 E. J. Hortox-S.MITH. — The Cranial Characteristics, &e. 


(sBinooj: pi^gpio) 
sapui JB[t?l£I-05VX 


xapui [rptjj aaddji 


•( .ttoqoai_V) 
xapm ivto-g; [biox 


•i cnBcnKOM'i 
iapci prpcj jadd;i 


* iiUBra[[0}j) 
xapni iBpBj l^ioi 


•xapui 


x'^pui OiqiBU£) i 


•xapui iti5t ipp 


1 *>p 

'■ o 


'.uioudro ;eiuc [3 ' | 


xapui •i[»'qd-)0 


•xas 


'Unqs JO I — , 




(iU OQ l^r «■('/) \ ,,p, 0f<'l ti li sooipui UTOK 

(jr.i 2 as) J 1 09 (") / 



MEASrEEilEXTS OE THE SKULLS. 


Sktll Xoibee. 

f!7t3 

G77 

b7s 

679 

CSO 

6S1 

rs2 


♦ ;s7 

♦ :ss 

689 

690 

49 L 

692 

G.t 5 

1 9! 

6'»:, 

Gtu: 

( 07 

698 

6.19 

701 ' 

7n‘j 

70~y 

70 ; 

707 

70S 

709 

710 

711 

713 

714 

742 

734 

7)41 

735 

736 

737 

738 

73.) 

711 

74- 

743 

744 

74 j 

746 

7-jG 

70 1 

« -jS 

759 

7G0 

7GI 

7* 

7G3 

704 

lS3 

Sex or Age 

Inn 

fern. 

male. 

male 

lent. 

Toung. 

I! ale 

male 

tein. 

male 

tfin. 

feni. 

male 

male. 

male 

I't-ni 

I'eill 

1‘eni. 

eUlll. 

ill. lie. 

rn lie. 

telll 

m.ile. 

111 . lie 

c'liilO. 

l‘e;n. 

fe n. 

fern. 

feui. 

ellllel. 

mile. 

ma'e. 

male. 

!’em. 

I’em 

male. 

male 

m-.le. 


m .i-. 

m lie. 

male 

male. 

t'eui. 

male. 

tem. 

male 

male 

nude. 

fern. 

iem. 

male. 

tem 

111 li-*. 

fem 

Iem. 

Breadth 

l:ii3 

1.12 

130 

115 

135 

134 

133 

in 

134 

148 

(14id 

130 

no 

‘,130) 

145 

133 

1128 

1 14 0 

12s 

146 

140 

139 

145 

143 

1,141) 

('1.44) 

1.49 

^^:32) 

14 1 

129 

(liJ) 

143 

141 

131 

(144) 

Ill 

142 

1)45 

,1!)) 

( 144) 

1 12 

ioG 

(146) 

(1.41) 

U-1 

14) 

1);8 

1 17 

13) 

142 

144 

1)44 

1.11 

Ill 

134 


Beneth •• 

1!U 

1S1> 

17.5 

l-'O 

184 

175 

1S2 

lbs 

173 

181 

lS(i 

181 

1 142 

179 

Isl 

177 

175 

I'O 

163 

191 

19 : 

179 

191 

lal 

172 

ISI 

1S2 

! ISS 

ISO 

los 

189 

isl 

1S9 ‘ 

177 

177 

184 

191 

18.1 

192 

184 

192 

ls7 

(18 1) 

1-4 

176 

186 

175 

187 

18-5 

1S8 

193 

187 

178 

1"'. 

] s 1 

1 d 

Basic -brenniatic 

heiicht .. J 

131 

127 

132 

132 

ns 

125 

123 

l.h5 

125 

124 


127 


121 

130 

127 

l.ll 

•- 

r 

1.43 

- 

132 

■134) 

' 


l-ij 

127 

? 

123 

■ 

12-1 

12 s 

142 

12.4 

132 

121 

130 

129 

1.44 

- 

142 


- 

- 

1)42 

127 

129 

126 

139 

132 

1)40 

127 

128 

13 ; 

IS 


iXasinlvooIar height . 

71 

(>2 

64 

60 

65 

60 

1 6 )) 

»:s 

63 

65 

61 

(63) 

r 


64 


- 

- 

(,51) 

- 

' 


S2 



5S 

■- 


.' 

52 

65 

OS 

70 

62 

- 

70 


64 

- 

- 

i t 

Gb 

- 


67 

- 


70 

65 

? 

75 

(|J‘)) 

63 


G- 

73 

iN’asionieiital length .. 

IIG 

r 

' 

104 


99 

.- 

111 

107 

■ 








■- 

■- 

-- 




- 

r 

9! 

r 



•- 


0 


- 

y 

113 

- 

109 

- 


121 

lOb 


y 


- 

- 

(114) 

1U9 

? 


y 

y 




Bi/} iroiiuitic breadth 

127 

( 119) 

1 126) 

121 

023) 

112 


Ml 

(117, 

131 

( 128) 

129 

■- 


tU O' 

- 


- 

(!),41 




131 

' 


(Ill) 

f 


■- 

(102) 

: 

(132) 

(13S) 

IIS 

- 

(137) 

r 

126 


: 

(132) 

130 


i 

(128) 


r 

128 

116 

y 

130 

y 

1 129) 

tlJs, 

SllO 

' 

Basialreuhir U-nsTth . . 

93 

101 

92 

85 

lOS) 

87 

94 

b7 

S5 

SI 

■' 

('8) 

■- 


92 



■' 

' 

■- 



i 

■' 

•' 

ss 

- 

r 


' 

91 

9 1 

97 

99 

- 

9;) 

- 

(91) 


■: 

96 

be 


y 

89 



99 

lol 


SS 

(91) 

94 

01 


' 

B-i'icna'dl Kngth 

ini 

(! 9) 

1 1 'U 

98 

97 

91 

(.{■Sl 

lu5 

N9 

92 


95 


!' 

10 1 

95 

94 

1 

- 




' 

.1 

I' 

■' 

95 


i 

- 

r 

l'i3 

yi 

. 110 

99 

99 

94 


loi 

lo5 


109 

K3 



93 

iC’l) 


99 

i 98 

j 

0*J 

0-8 

93 

95 

I'd 

03. 


Orbital heiglit 

35 

32 

35 

28 

37 

.30 


• ir>' 

'■ih du" 

34 

33 

36 

32 



31 

- 

I 

t 

■ 

31 


- 

- 

33 

■' 


31 

r 

1 


31 

35 

32 

lol (r)l 

l3)3 id; 

3 4 

- 

33 


34 



34 

31 



33 

. y 

y 

31 

I 31 

p 

30 

33 

31 

3*5 

ol 

• '/ 

Orbital breadth 

39 

38 

39 

lit! 

11 

36 

r.’.'j) 

40 

• *7 

40 

42 

3 ( 

Si 


4 1 



: 

31 

: 

•' 

I- 

39 


- 

37 



'J 

33 

(:4 J) 

.39 

38 

38 


88 

- 

39 , 

? 

? 

40 

40 



39 

■' 

.y 

39 

(37) 

0 

30 

37 

33 

-11 

35 

42 

Xasal lieight 

19 

4.5 

50 

43 

51 

11 

43 

4b 

14 

50 

51 

4-1 

S 


■) 


1 

■- 

36 




.53 

' 


45 

■' 

■ 

■■ 

37 

48 

4S 

52 

4S 

- 

52 

- 

49 


r 

56 

-5'* 


- 

5.1 


- 

( to 

( 19) 


.">3 

47 

47 

■U 

17 

10 

Xu:-al breadtli 

23 

28 

24 

21 

26 

22 


27 

21 

2.5 

23 

23 



2 s 

■- 

( 

■ 

19 

r 



2.3 


r 

22 


: 

- 

21 

22 

2.1 

25 

23 


2)1 

' 

23 



25 

Si 

■ 

- 

21 

y 


(23) 

(25) 

y 

:i4 

(25) 

23 

33 

:11 

- ’ 

Palat*il leniith 

s 

51 

49 

17 

■IS 

• 

(-18) 

- 

IS 

50 

14 

- 


- 

- 



r 


■- 

- 

- 

- 

-5)1 

- 


11 


i 


41 


(51) 

19 

54 

- 

-55 

- 



r 

•51 

o'* 

■ 

- 


y 

- 

.54 

47 

y 

- 

- 

.5.4 



'i ) 

Palatal breadth 

- 

6.3 

62 

59 

(-37) 

34 

- 

G5 

56 

.- 




- 




■' 

•J 

' 



66 

■- 

r 

5S 




51 

•r 

(6'>) 

()3 

.59 


63 

- 

r 

- 

- 

63 


■ 

- 

■- 

y 


57 

! 

y 

- 

y 

(iL 

' 



Ciipaeitv in e.c. 


.- 

- 

1 120 

1230 

1270 

l20J 

lo-j" 

1320 

12.''0 

■ 

- 

' 



- 



■- 


- 

■- 

InO'l 



- 



- 

- 


1320 

l.ioO 

119 1 


- 



■- 


- 

1370 


- 



- 

y 


y 

- 

y 






INDICES. 


Cranial breadtli index 

71 2 

7 2 ■ .") 

71 3 

So 6 

73 4 

7G ‘6 

7.3 1 

75 0 

7 s ti 

si s 

(81-1) 

71 S (72 9: 

(72-6) 

7s •(> 75 L 

73 1 tsl'i) 7 s '5 

75 '3 

76 

7 / '7 ^ 74 '7 .81 '1 

'Sl'4) (74-0) 

76 4 

76 '3 

( -5 )4 76 '8 

(71-1' 

79 0 

74-6 

74-0 ( 75 - i ) 

7.8-3 

74-3 

72-6 

(70-8) (78-3) 

74-0 

72-7 (7)) -3) 

(72 '8) S'J’l 73 3 

7'>'0 78 ’G 

75 1 ; 

75 *5 

74 G 

71 7 

73 G 

73 -8 

74-1 

r 

Cranial heiiTht index. 

68 '6 

GO s 

75 '4 

73 3 

64 -1 

71-4 

( 7 6 

71 5 

< 2 -J 

Gs -5 


70-2 

67 6 

73 -1 71 s 

7 4 -9 y 

68 6 

r 

7 . 4 -7 (68-6) y 

; 71 -8 

69 8 

y 

66 1 y 

37 *7 

70 -7 

7.5-1 

69 -5 71-6 

65 -S 

GS ■ 1 

69 -4 

69 8 

74-0 

(.7-4 

75 0 t:s -3 

73 7 G7 4 

75-1 1 

70-2 

G7 '4 

t>7 0 

71 0 

())) -7 

71 -1 


Tctal facial index 

90 1 



. 8.4 9 


ss 4 


.84 7 

lid -5f 


■- 

y y 


r 

y ? 

: 


e 

l.mi-.S; 

■' 

y 

y 


y 

e 

y 

(S9 Oi 


.86 4 

.. 

(91-7) 

,53 -9 = 

' 

l80-Ut 


y 


? 


• 



I’pper facial index . . 

5.5 -9 

i.">2 1) 

1-50 8; 

48 4 

(.52-8, 

53 6 


.51 9 

(53 SI 

40 -G 

1 50 0 ) 

1-18 8) 

y 

(47-1) 

' (M 1) 

y 

■? 

y 62 •() 

(52 3) 

y 

y 

y (51) 

y 

(51 -5) 

(•50-7) 

52 -2 y 

(.55 •]) 


50 -8 

y 

(5S - 3 ) 

53 -1 y 

(52 3i 

51*7 

? ' 

y 

57 '» 


(-lb -s) 

(.50 1) 

(51-3) 


Gnathic index 

99 '0 

102 0 

(2 -0 

^G 7 

(1"1) 

95 'G 

(95 -O) 

92 -4 

05 5 

91 3 

- 

(92 -6) r 

y 

92 0 

y y y 

- 

? 

y 

y 92 -6 

y 

y 

y 

SS 3 

94-9 

88-2 

10.5 0 

10-5 -3 . 


(,92-1) 

.y 

88 -1 

92 -2 y 

90 7 

r inu'O 

103-1 1 


so b 

(01 -0) 

07 0 

93 -1 

Ob *0 


(Orbital inilex . . 

89 7 

^ t 2 

89 7 

7s ti 

9.) 2 

5S3-3 

(8 1-6) 

82 .5 

01 0 

S2 -5 

85 -7 

Stl85 

y 

S2 0 

y In ) 'jf 

- 


y 84 6 

91 •') 

y 

.y 

y 93 -9 

(07 '2) 

.82 -0 

8 ) -5 

so -5 y 

86-8 


8-1 "6 

y y 

85 -0 

85-0 ? 

S4 -6 

87-2 

)S3-S) ! 

0 

10“ 0 

bO 2 

70 -5 

85 1 

01 -4 

bb-1 

>'a5al index . . 

16 -9 

02 2 

48-0 

4s S 

51 -0 

53 ‘7 

62-8 

55 1 

45 7 

5f ) ( 1 

45 1 

47 9 


5G 0 

y ' 52 s 

- 

- 

r 44 4 

y 48 ■& 



y 56 '8 

45 S 

54 2 

48 2 

47 -9 

44 -2 


46 9 

y ? 

44 -6 

50 -0 

45-3 

(4G 0) 

(51-0) 


45 -3 

^53 2 ) 

38-0 

45-1 

51 1 

4G-0 

Palatal index . . 

- 

123 -5 

12685 

12.5-5 

CA 7 ) 

(112-5) 

y 

1.(5 - 1 

112 " 

y 



■- 

' 

y 

■ 

' 

121 5 y 

y 

y 

y 

y 121-4 

? 

.(129-4) 

i 

128 -6 

109-3 y 

114-5 


? 

y 

12)4 -5 

118-0 

y ? r 

I05'o 

(127 -6) 



2 

115-1 



11 G 0 



t— 


i 



C. M. Pleyte. — An unpublished Batak Creation Legend. 103 


An unpublished Batak Creation Legend. 

By C. M. Pleyte. 

The first village.^ 

“ I FOLD mv hands respectfully above my head, 0 gods on 
high ; ” 

“ Seven times pardon, lord, for naming thy name, Batara guru 
dol i,- who reignest among the gods of the upper regions ! ” 

“ Lord of the seven strongholds, whose walls are so high, that 
the elephants stoop before them, the surrounding bamboo com- 
pels the storm to respect.” 

“ Possessor of the bathing place Si-mangera-era,’^ situated in 
an inaccessible region.” 

“ The ficus Yamhu barus* extends its vault over thee, when 
thou enjoyest thyself with thine in the fields, or pronouncest 
judgment in the sltade of its foliage, wherein the birds of the 
sky hover to and fro, flapping their wings and warbling sweetly.’ 

Si-tapi Simlccr di niata ni ari^ daughter of Batara guru, sat 
at the gate of heaven, dressing her hair, wherein she made an 
extraordinarily beautiful parting. She felt a desire to look down- 
ward, but her heart was struck with sadness vhen she could 
discover notliing but a bare plain. When she came home, her 
father remarked the alteration of her features and asked with 
compassionate interest ; “ What is the matter, my dear daughter ? 
you seem put out.” 

'■ Xothing is the matter with me, father, why should I be 
discontented ? I have the happiness to be your daughter, and is 
it not already blithe to see the birds Futija raja and Buruk- 
buruk bolajnn i 

* * * » 

Batara. guru slept and had a bad dream. “ I woke disturbed, 
for in my sleep I saw an unwonted agitation in the air, and the 
ground shook as if it were moved by an earthquake,” he said to 
his daughter, and turning to one of his d/awd'i-swallows,^ he 
ordered it to go down. 

“ How shall I get there, lord ? ” 

“ Here is a jacket’ of my father’s, put it on in order not to get 
too tired with flying in such a vast space,” said Si-tapi Sindar di 
'iiiata ni ari. 

The swallow s.riled downward, tracing wide circles in the air, 
but it Siiw nothing whatever on which it could rest. At last it 
espied the rock Tanjvk tolufi and let itself, quite exhausted, 
down upon it. Then it rolled up the jacket and used it as a 
cushion on which to take the rest it so much wanted. 



104 


C. M. PtEYTE . — An unpvMished 


Si-iapi Sinclar di rnata ni ari became impatient on account of 
the long absence of the swallow, ami sent the bird Patijn raja 
to look after it. Patija roja was also provided Yvith a jacket 
and hovered on it doYvnward. After it had looked for a long 
time in all directions, it discovered at la.st the swallow sleeping 
peacefully. 

“ Why do not you come ? ” 

“ The strong wind makes it impossible for me to fly upward " 

“Say rather that you are not willing; why sucli a false 
pretence ? Look how I shall manage.’’ 

Patija. raja flew up in mid-air, but rvas overmastered bv the 
strong wind, Yvhich drove him towards the east, and he was 
obliged to come back without delay. 

“ What did I tell you, it is impos.sible 1 ’’ 

“ Xow then Yve shall have to stay here for the present.” 

“ What c.an be the reason that they stay so long ( ” said the 
princess, growing more and more impatient. She called thc- 
cowflea^' and said : “ Please go down and see why they do not 
come back.” 

“ I must, you say, go thither ; but is there nothing that I 
have to take with me ? ” 

“Here is a fire.steel ; take it in your armpit, and be carefi.I 
that nobody here shall know that I have given it to you. ’ 

(The cowflea went, ami one would say that the little balls 
protruding from his head had l.ieen his eyes, if it were not known 
that his organs of sight were in his aimpits.j’" The flea des- 
paired at first of finding the two birds, but had nevertheless at 
last the good luck of meeting them still on the Tujijuh tdu. 

“ Why do not you come ? the princess is so angry ! ’’ 

“The .strong wind has made our return impo.s.sible, and that 
is Yvhy Yve are still sitting here.” 

The three began to consider together Yvhat they ought to do. 
They resolved to go to the rock Kaiifigar jatip and to trv to 
make their return from its top. When they had reached the 
rock, Patija raja began to climb it. He arrived half way ip* 
and looked on all sides, but he di.scoY'ered nothing that couh! 
be of use to them in their embarrassment. Unlv a bale ]ilaiu 
Y\as .spread before his eyes. Therefore he climbed higher, 
and first, Yvhen he reached the top, he saw the roots of the- 
Yaialu larvs dangling gently above him. He hoped now to be 
soon back, proY’ided he succeeded in grasping one of the roots, 
but notYvithstanding all his efforts, they still remained out of 
his reach. He began to lament loudly, for his last hope yy u.s 
gone. 

His cries rose upYY'ard and Yvere heard by the princess, Yvho 



Batcik Creation Legend. 


105 


thought that she recognised the voice of her favourite bird. She 
sent one of her servants to see what had happened, and was soon 
after aware of the trutli. She asked then for her hetel-poucli, 
and opened it so that the scent spread far off, and Fatlja rajn, 
who smelt it, was full of sad thoughts on account of his beloved, 
mistress. 

* * » * 

Si-tapi Sijidcr di mata ni ari went to the gate of heaven and 
took with her a magic ring,^* her betel-pouch, and seven hen's 
eggs. AMien arrived, she sat down and looked downward, upon 
which, espying Patija raja, she said to him: “Do not cry any 
raore but hasten to come up.” 

“Alas, princess, I cannot reach the roots of the Yaralu lum.-i, 
all my endeavours have been in vain.” 

“ Since it cannot be otherwise, you must make up your mind 
to go down again ; I shall take care that you want nothing.” 

She let down the magic ling and gave Patija raja these 
directions : “ "When you three have settled on the Tonjal- tola, 
tlien you nm.st open the eggs, and you will find in them all the 
plants and trees which you may rerpiire ; but if you want to 
have cattle, you must call on the magic ring, and \-oii will get 
not only cattle but also all kinds of animals, "habitations, 
council-houses, and whatever more you may wish for.” 

'When the adventurers found themselves togetlicr again on 
TanjuJj tola, they opened the eggs, scattered n.iund about them 
the contents, and l.iy this means soon saw splendid fields and 
gardens appear. In a short time they were, by the power of the 
nnagic ring, put in possession of houses and all they wanted. 

They feasted then, eating and drinking good things, and settled 
also that Patija raja should be king, tlie swallow vice-kinu, 
and the cowllea commander of tlio warriors of tlie newlv e-'-tab- 
lislied village. Then they pr,a} ed to Batara guru that theV mielit 
have ofi'spring in order to [leople the village. 

W’hen he had heard their prayer, Batara guru ordered his 
sister Pandun ruiaoriY to go to the earth. 

“ P)Ut, brother, how shall I get there " 

“Do not be anxious about your journey, aunt ; I shall make 
it as easy as possible for you,” sahl Bi-tapi Stuifar di hiaBi ai 
ari. 

“ You must choose a good spot to settle there, aunt ; and when 
you have made your establishment, you must promise me that 
on the next lestiwal Saturday j'” you will come uu to the top of 
the rock.” 

Bi-tapi Bindar di mata ni ari now twisted her hair into a 
basket, wherein her aunt Bandan rumuri, after having put a 



106 


C. M. Pleyte. — An urquiNlshed 


magic ring on her finger, placed herself to be let down on the 
Nanggar Jati. Wlien she arrived on the top, she looked fear- 
fully round abcnit, but finally went down the rock. She settled 
at the foot of it, and called her abode Fulo porlak ipagaro.n. 
When the festival Saturday arrived, Pajidan rumari went to the 
top of the Xonggar jati, where the roots of the Yamhu larus still 
dangled. She tried to take hold of one, but failed, and, not 
knowing what to do, she began to weep loudly. 

At the niomeut Si-topi Sindar niata ni ari heard the sobbing, 
■she said to herself : Is not this my aunt ? ” And going to 
the gate of heaven to look down, she found at once that she 
was right. At the same time she remembered what had been 
concerted. She ordered a servant to bring her a woman’s 
jacket, a Jew’s harp, a pair of ear ornaments, a mirror, and 
lemons, twelve ditfereut kinds grown on the same branch. She 
let all these things down to her aunt and then took leave of 
lier with the following words : “ Go back down the rock, dear 
aunt, and take with you the bird Imbulu Man, who can be of 
service to you, if you want to enter into relation with Patija 
raja, and his comrades.” 

Pandan rumari then got the bird Imhulu McnM to accom- 
pany her, wlro was no ordinary bird, since she had no feathers, 
and she was like a human being as regarded her skin. She 
was also, through the will of Batnra guru, pregnant of a human 
fruit. 

When she had returned to her dwelling, Pandan rumari, on 
account of the situation in which the bird found herself, gave 
her an appropriate couch, surrounded by mats arranged like 
curtains. 

* * » * 

One day, Pandan rumari lighted a great fire, the smoke of 
which rose on high and was perceived by the inhabitants of 
Tanjid- tolu. 

“ Go and .see who makes a fire there,” said Patija, raja to the 
■swallow. 

“ But when I arrive there and find somebody, I shall have to 
say something.” 

If you do not know the person, ask him who has made him 
come there.” 

Ihe swallow came to Pandan rumari and asked her who had 
sent her to that place. “ Batara guru sent me here. But you 
come as if called for, because Imhulu Man must be with you at 
Tnnjuk t(jluy answered Paada.n rumari. 

hen the swallow arrived at Tanjvh tolu with Imbulu Man, 
this last addressed Patija raja as follows : ‘‘ The reason why I 
have been sent here by the princess, is that 1 should provide 



Batak Creation Legcnrt. 


107 


you offspring so that you do not remain without subjects.” 
After some time, Irabulii Man was delivered of two daughters, of 
wliom Patijn raja an'l tlie swallow each took one for his wife. 
If Iinbulu Man were to give biitli to one more (laughter later, 
then the cowflea was to have her for a wife. The cowflea wms 
by no means satisfied, and thinking that he might have to wait 
a very long time for his wife, he secretly got Imhulu Man 
with child, in order to secure his wish. It appeared soon that 
she was again pregnant, and she declared that this was the 
co'.vflea’s doing ; but he was let off after a slight repiiinand from 
Futija, raja. 

Ihibidii Man was afterwards delivered of a son, who had the 
name of Bala porang. After that Patija raja had by liis wdfe a 
son, to whom they gave the name of Baja Manuksnag di portihi. 
As for the swallowg he had two daughters, the one of whom 
they called Sada lurnbrin, and the other Burn dorau ; at the fea.st 
of the naming of his daughters, the swallow gave himself the 
title of Naniora Mangipa. 

As they made their children intermarry, the inhabitants of 
Tanjuk tolu could soon rejoice in the possession of numerous 
descendants, whose swarms tilled the newly founded village. 


NOTES. 

‘ The title of the Batak original hi Hiita porjolo. The text of it form.s 
part of the manu.scripts bequeathed by Dr. H. N. v. d. Tuuk to the library 
of the National University of Leyden. The original reproduced here, I 
found in a letter of v. d. Tuuk, sent to the Dutch Bible Society, -n-hich 
lias kindly allowed me to publish it. 

- Batura guru doli, i.e., Batara guru the man, is the upper god of the 
Bataks, since his father, Hula djadi na bolon, i.e., the great origin of 
being, like the Kronos of the old Grecian mytbologv-, wa.s put into the hack- 
giound (i'i’c/e Pleyte, ‘‘ Bataksche Vertellingen,'' p. ^78, note 8.) 

•> Bi-mangera-era is probably an oinamental expres.-ion for Bi mangira- 
ira, the one who rustles. 

' The holy ficus tree whose roots touch the top of the Xanggar djati, 
the rock which the gods used to come down to on earth, the way used by 
privileged mortals, who were allowed to visit the heavenly regions {ride 

Bat. Vert.” p. 127 etc.). Some authors have compaied this rock with the 
mount Meru of the Hindus. But it is not at all neces.sary to Jo so in 
order to explain the appearance of this mountain in Batak m_\ thology, since 
it is a well known fact that in the legends of the Alfurus of ilinaliasa 
and Central-C'elebes, on the Kei Islands, etc., and in the sacred tales of 
the South Sea Islanders, people who never came in contact with the Hindus, 
a mountain fulfils the same function as the Xanggar jati of the Bataks. 

“ These first lines form a tonggo-tonggo, an invocation, the very usual 
beginning of Batak tales. 

® A princess of the heavens, mentioned in a great number of tales. In 
Mandailing, she is called Si-tapi Singgar di mata ni art. Both names 



lOS C. M. Pleyte. — A'/i vnjjubllsliccl Batuk Creation Legend. 


signifv Si-tapi, illuminated by the sun {ekle “ Bataksclie Y ertellingen,’ p. 
23:2 \ ■ 

■ All that seems to be kno^vn of these birds is that they belong to the 
retinue of Beitara guru. 

^Messengers of the gods of the upper regions to the mortals of our 
planet. 

’ Such a jacket, which is provided with wings, is called rnahijang. and 
is used: tattan lao eeiijur hahol' knhong lao tu glnjeing, i.e., to hover down- 
waid, to dv upward. These flying j.ackets are the e.vclusive property of 
li ituni qaru. These jackets, though the pos.-ibility is not excluded that 
thev are of In{lian invention, did nut come into tlie talcs of the Ylal.ayo- 
iiilvnesians during the period of their invasion of luili.inesia for the same 
reasons as the Xo nggeir jati. YY’e find tlicm, fur instance, in the stoties of 
all the Indonesian tribes, therefore also among those who did not come in 
contact with the Hindus as well as on the New-Hebrides, which fact 
.shows clearly that if they are of Asiatic importation, this importation 
must have taken place in a jreriod much older than the invasion of the 
Hindus, and this probably in the days when the peoples who form the 
Malayo-Polynesian family nowadays, had not yet begun their exodus to 
the islands of the Indian Archipelago and the South Seas, but were still 
living in the upper regions of India Minor, M.tlaka, Burmah, Cambodja, 
etc. 

Ta/ijuk toll!. Zs'o particulars about the place where this rock was 
situated are given. 

ti'owtlea is a kind of large tick, not yet baptised by science. 

This is the tiist time that we meet in Batak folklore with the mention 
of tire as hiought dotMi from heaven to earth. The Bataks seem, there- 
fore. to have had their Prometheus, though his name could not escape 
oblivion. In connection heiewith it must be noted, that in the creation 
legends of the Alfurus of C'eutral-C'elebe.s, e.speeially among the trikes 
surrounding the lake of I’usa, a legend, runs which shows a particular 
affinity to the Batak story. La.eeioa, the creator of men, provided them 
also with tire, but on a certain day all the fire went out, nut a single spark 
remained glowing. In the.se sad circumstances a man named Tarahvja 
resolved to go to heaven to fetch the so eagerly desired fire. At his 
ai rival the inhabitants of the heavens jitomised to give him fire if he 
would allow them to cover his eyes, in caxler that he might not see how 
they manageil in making fire. He consented, but lifting up hi; arms to 
Jiut bis hand before his eye.s, lie uncovered his armpits, in which he had 
also eyes, so that he .s.iw liow a knife was struck against a fiint so th.at the 
spaiks fiew about and set a piece of wood on tire. The binning stick was 
given to Tamhuja, who toiik it with him on his return, with the secret of 
tire making. The point of the Batik and Alfuru Piometheus having eyes 
under their arms is .so sti iking, th.at we may accept it th.it both stories 
sprang frnin the same source. To prove it is as yet impossible, since iden- 
tical legends from the Indone'iaus are not piiblisheil, so far as I can 
ascertain {vide Kruyt, ‘’Alb. He legendeu der Poso-Alhjereii aangaaiide 
de ter&te meuschen. Meded.v. w. het Xederl. Zeudeliut^f'enootsfcha])/’ 
1894, p. 34i:. 

Jntl note 4), was formerly an immense roek readiiug 
to the sky. All that is left of it now, according to tradiiion, is a low 
liiii in the Si pirok country since Media Dmnaa and his friends crushed it 
to pieces after their return from the divine lauds i vide "'Bat. Vert.*' pp. 142, 
225;. It must he remarked that the destnijing by vinleuce of the moun- 
tain that formed the way to heaven is also familiar in Indonesian folklore ; 
compare the story of Warereh. who splits the Lokon in Graatlaml, “Miiia- 
hassa I,'^ 143; idso in Hickson, ‘‘A Jsaturalist in North Celebes/’ p. 248 tf. 



H. W. SETOX-IvArvi ;. — CuUcction of Flint Iwjihi.ieiifs. 109 


“ In the dialects of the West Coast this ring is called tittit si-padJaJi- 
djacli, the all creating ring, in those cf the East Coast, shisiny pinta pinta, 
wishing ring. 

This passage throws light on one of the obscure points of Batak 
mythology. Ina ni si panditii mmare or rumari figures in several tales 
as an old widow friendly to men, living in ,a kin<l of paradise named Pido 
porlak parjaraa, f.e., fenced island garden. Till now her origin was 
unknown, though it had already been remarked that she bears diverse 
names, for inst.ince that of hia si rondo Lujo or Riimhio kojo in Mandai- 
ling. The late Dr. v. d. Tuuk had moreover shown that Pitndan, rumari 
is the same as Finik Kahnjan in the Iliknjat si-iniskcii, and as Ruhijah 
randa laja in the legends of the Me nanpknoaii-mahiyn : but he had given 
no indication of the origin ascribed to her in the Batak lielief. At present 
we know that she is a sister of Datura guru, therefore a deity. The 
identity of Pandan rumari = Rondo kajo\;it\\ Rubijah randa kaja has also 
this conser^uence that Pandan rumari is identical with the M.andailing 
divinity Taican rurnhio kajo. This higher ]>ower, therefore, living in the 
tifth heaven, and controlling agriculture, according to the Mandadings, 
is feminine, and not, as was generally considered, masculine. 

“ The festive Saturday, Samisara na godang, more generally named 
Sarnisani purnama, is the day preceding the night of the full moon. As 
the Bataks reckon their months by moons, this day is for them always the 
fourteenth of the month. 

Imhulu Man was a featherless bird, which received its feathers from 
other birds, and thence was c.dled Foga portuppuvan. f.c., Faga, dressed 
in that which is brought together. He is the hero of many tales, and was 
bom from a drop of clotted blood on which a hawk had been l.iroo.ling as 
on an egg. 


JrxE 9 th, 1896. 

E. AV. Brv.\BEOOK, Est-, E.S.A., Prcndaif, in the Chair. 

The Alinutes of the lust Meeting were read and .signed. 

The election of Miss Cl. M. CIoddex was announced. 

The death of Dr. IIobeut Br.owx was announced. 

Mr. H. M'. SETOX-K.yr.E exhibited some flint implements from 
the Egyptian desert, and remarked that during previous journeys 
for lion shooting in Somali-laud he had Itrought home imple- 
ments for examination. On the last or tiftli jcurney his object 
was entirely to search for implements of larger size, of distinct 
paheolitliic character. Brevionsly he had seen and studied the 
general shape and size in t'ir John Evans’s collection. He was 
very fortunate to find a large number. Before the collection 
■was dispersed lie photographed it; and tlic.-e, as photos, with a 
numl'er of Souiali-land life and scenery, were exhibited. Sir 



110 


Major-Gex. Robley. — Culhction of 


Joliu Evans and other authorities were now of opinion that they 
were of paheohthic age, and Sir John Evans had so stated on 
April 30th last before the Royal Society. 

With regard to the Egyptian implements he found in the 
spring on the desert, he would suggest they might be the 
Afthiopic stones of Herodotus, used for embalming purposes. 
Sir John Evans and otiiers, however, were of opinion they were 
much older ; stone arrowheads, we are told, were used as late as 
the IStli dynasty. He thought Africa might prove to be the 
cradle of a piortion, at any rate, of the human race. 

ilr. Read expressed his gratification at the tine series of 
Egyjitian implements shown, but he ventured to demur to tlie 
assumption that these had been accepted as of paheohthic age. 
He did not remember that either Sir John Lubbock or General 
Put-Rivers had claimed so high an antitpiity for the similar 
implements discovered l>y them. Mr. Read’s impression was 
that Professor Petrie had, at a comparatively recent date, 
demonstrated the existence of palteolithic implements in Egypt, 
and that his attribution of so remote an age to the implement 
lound by him at Esneh was founded principality if not entirely, 
upon its position, viz., 200 feet above the present Xile.^ 

With regard to the Somnli-land implements, ilr. Read said 
he had a few words to add to his remarks on the previous 
occasion. On a recent visit to Brussels he had discussed the 
matter with M. Dupont, the well known Director of tlie ISatuial 
History Lluseiim there. M. Dupont had seen photographs of 
Mr. Seton-KiUr’s implements, and declared positively that such 
remains were by no means uncommonly found on the surface in 
the Congo district, that he himself had brought some hack, and 
that from his obseivations as a geologist he had come to the 
conclusion that they -were remains of the recent stone age of 
Africa, i.e., neolithic. 

Mr. Read thought it worthy of some consideration whether in 
Africa might not he found one of the spots in the globe where 
there was no gap between paheolithic and neolithic man. There 
seemed every pr<jhability that if such a favoured spot was to be 
found, a.s had been ably argued by Sir Henry Howorth in his 
“ Mammoth and the Elood,” it would he within the tropics. 

Major-General Robley exhibited a collection of baked heads 
of Maoris, all bearing tattooing except one of an iiitant, and 
made tile following remarks 

' Petrie, Ten Years’ Diggings in Egypt,” 1S93, p. 77. 



Baked Heads of Maoris. 


Ill 


Most of the early writers on hTew Zealand mention the 
practice of preserving heads. It was general before Captain 
Cook’s time, and the first ever obtained by Europeans was 
procured by Mr. Banks, January 7th, 1770. In old days the 
distinction was first reserved for persons of importance. The 
principal object seems to have been to keep alive the memory 
of the dead, and the moko mokni, as they were called, supplied 
the places of statues and monumental records. In the case of a 
departed chief it was a visible sign that in some mysterious way 
his presence was among the people. It was no uncommon 
thing for the head of a beloved relative to be embalmed. 

Such were always kept in greatest esteem, they were a 
memorial of the grief of the survivors, and kept to show rela- 
tives and friends who were absent at tlie decease. The origin of 
the embalming is involved in obscurity, in common with every- 
thing relating to the early customs of the Maori. 

Weight must he given to the consideration that warriors 
would wish to show, as trophies, heads of the enemy, but while 
those of friends were carefully guarded, these latter were exposed 
on tops of posts so that the prowess of the tribe might he seen. 

These enemies’ heads played a part in the negociations for 
peace, as an exchange was an indispensable article in the treaty. 

The Maoris did not entirely reserve their treatment of heads 
for their own race, and many heads of white men have been 
dried ; there are some existing in collections. The last instance 
was in Idfid, when Captain Lloyd, of the 57th Ilegiment, and 
his detachment fell into ambuscade at Te Ahuhu, on April 6th. 
The Maoris cut off the heads of the fallen and they were used 
ill the orgie.s of the Hauhaiis. 

Captain Lloyd’s was afterwards given up, hut in 1865 one 
soldier’s head was used by them as a mystic symbol. 

The old embalming consisted in the removal of all the interior 
of the head and drying in smoke fire after a careful steaming or 
even hasting. This jtrocess was so good that many heads are in 
splendid condition even now though over 60 and luO years old. 
The form of features was fairly kept, and the identity of the 
deceased easily recognized, for the tattooing kept its place 
exactly on the face. 

The first head taken to Sydney was in 1811. lentil Euro- 
peans visited Xew Zealand these heads had only a sentimen- 
tal value ; but after 1820 the natives were first armed with 
muskets, and a depopulation of the islands began. To save 
itself from extinction, a tribe had to give it’s all for arms and 
ammunition, and then it was that specimen heads came into 
exchange, and a regular traffic arose, which attained such 
dimensions that slaves were tattooed and their heads sold. 



112 


^IaJOK-Gex. Eobley. — Collection of Baleed Hco.'h. 


Old "nidge' were raked up, aud small wars undertaken, to keep 
up the 5 up[>]y. 

In 1S31, some European dealers in heads were so treated 
themselves in Xew Zealand, hut the escapade of a sea captain 
brought the scandal into prominent notice, and the famous 
Sydney Government order of April IGth, IS.'ll, was enacted, 
whieli put a final stop to the trade in Maori heads. 

Ladies looking at one of these exhibited heads might wonder 
if the object ever was loved by wife or sweetheart ; men would 
think rather of what melee or ambuscade the first owner fell in, 
and whether friend, foe, or master, used the tomahawk to its 
neck. It may be observed that the Maoris had splendid teeth 
and hair, and the shape of the head of good specimens of the 
old natives is long, with heavy jaw. 

A few heads have the real eyes left in, or false ones added ; 
but generally the eyelids are closed, as the Maoris thought that 
by looking into the empty orbits they were in danger of being 
bewitched. 

As regards the tattooing, which is from chin to the roots of 
the hair, that which has been cut deeply with the dyed chisels 
made of bone, shows deep furrows in the skin ; this was the old 
-style. 

"When, at a later period, implements made of iron were used, 
the tiacery was much finer, and the furrows not so deep. 
Seldom are there marks of pricking ; the work was nearly 
always done hy cutting. Of course the black dye looks dark 
blue on the skin. 

In some specimens, the tattooing has been accentuated Ijy 
post-mortem cuts going over the patterns done during life. The 
tattoo on the lip.s does not show well as it was not cut so deep 
on .such a tender part. 

The liead.s exhibited to tlie Institute are all in good keeping. 

2 are head.s of men with grey hair. 

1 that of an infant. 

1 a head preserved hy relations. 

The remaining ten .are warriors, some having woumls. One 
lias a long elf lock which was the old cu.stom of mourning I'or 
the death of a near relative as we learn from Mr. Holken, of 
Dunedin, a great autliority on Maori lore. 

As no two JIaoris were ever tattooed alike, all these are 
difierently adnrned, both as regards pattern, ([uantity, and 
quality. My liruk on ‘ Aloko *’ (4to, Chapman aud Hall), with 
1SI illustrations, goes fully into the subject of the ilaori arts 
cf tattooing and embalming; it should be of use to the student, 
many liigli luitlioiities having aided in the work. 





C. S, Myers. — Soine Skulls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 113 
The following papers were read : — 

“ An account of some skulls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk.” 
By C. S. Myers, Esq. 

“ Social Life in Fanti-land,” By Dr. E. M. Coxxolly. 


An Account of some Skulls discovered at Braxdox, Suffolk. 

By Charles S. Myers, B.A., Slmttleworth Scholar of 

Gonville and Cains College, Cambridge. 

A. Introductory. 

At Professor Macalister’s request, I undertook during the mouth 
of July, 1895, to measure and descrilje this series of sixty- 
three skulls, then recently secured by him for the Anatomical 
Museum of Cambridge University. The circumstances under 
which the skulls were obtained did not allow of my presence at 
their excavation ; but I have visited the spot where the 
discovery was made, and have gathered all possible informati(jn 
oil the matter. Brandon is a village and parish on the borders 
of Suffolk and Xorfolk, wliich are here separated by the Little 
Ouse or Brandon Eiver. Lying on the eastern margin of the 
fens, Brandon has long been noted for its flint quarries, as they 
are believed to liave been worked continuously since the Neolithic 
Period. The majority of the inhabitants are dark, a feature 
that contrasts with the general Anglian fairness of Norfolk 
and Suffolk. Their language and eusti.)ms are said still to bear 
evidence of pre-Eoman times.(=^) Two Eoman camps once lay 
situated within a very few miles from Brandon. Near them 
and Brandon ran tlie Icknield Way, an old road probably built 
by the Iceni before tlie Eoman invasion. 

The skulls were found in a field just outside Brandon within 
SO yards from the river. In Peliruary, 1894, an infuriated 
bull tore up the earth at the spot and re\ ealed a skull. No 
active notice, however, was taken of this discovery until the 
spring of the following year, when three holes were dug in the 
sandy soil. The first was crescentic, measuring 18 yards in 
length, and averaging 3 yards in breadth ; the other two 
holes were smaller, about 8x4 }-ards, and have not hitherto 
yielded S(j many skulls as the first. These three holes were dug 
on the to]) of a large circular elevation, aliout 50 yards in 
diameter, which was surrounded by a de])ressed area of ground 
and at no point rose more than 3 feet aliove tlie average 
plain of the grassy meadow. Along tlie whole extent of the 

VOL. XXVI. I 



114 


C. S. Mvers. — An Account of 


rise the lahourers are fully confident of discovering further 
human reiuainsd A seci >nd elevation lies near it, separated by 
a slightly deptressed area. But in each case the slope is so gentle 
as to be only noticealde to the observant eye. I cannot find, 
either in the Ordnance Survey Maps or elsewhere, that the 
field has borne any name significant of a burial pjlace. Xor 
have I discovered historical records, local or general, that prove 
of any assistance. Arrow-heads have been freipventl}' met with 
in the neighbourhood. Half a mile distant from the field, 
broken specimens of Homan, British ami Samian ware have 
been found in abundance. SkuUs which have never been 
described and mnv enjoy private ownership) were dug up at 
Weeting, a few miles from Brandon. Camden makes mention(t>) 
of the discovery of skulls even nearer to Brandon. The 
skeletons of the piresent series were found entire, but it was by 
no means rare to find p)arts of the same body separated by some 
distance. No bones were discovered at a depth exceeding 4 
feet. There was a complete absence of display of orientation in 
burial ; it was ecpually common to find bodies lying over, 
parallel to or across each other. No ornaments nor any pottery 
came to light. Lttrge piieces of iron were dug upr, but they had 
so decayed that it was impossible to pronounce on their former 
use. The soil was sandy, coloured here and there l)y the 
rust that had diffused through it. The skeletons of the 
present series are in remarkably good condition : they include 
those of men and women which are found in almost eipual 
numbers, of three children and of several Irorses. In many 
cases the human calvaria are curiously worn away, even to the 
diprloe, in the form of a ring, as if some heavy instrnmeiit had 
pressed on them. No. 68t) has sncli a character over the 
right piarietal region. No. 708 has a long sickle-shaped groove 
running from right to left across the lambda and the p)arietal 
hones. No. 760 presents a comp)letely circular groove which 
runs, fillet-like, around the horizontal circumference. A few of 
the skulls hear holes of which some are of new, others are of 
old, formation. No. 708 shows a hole in the middle of the right 
half of the coronal suture ; it measures 80 x 21 mm. and 
has eroded piits in its neighbourhood. No. 764 has a circular 
ragged-edged hole, 8 x 13 mm. below the right srpuamons 
suture. Nil. 761 has a wide, evidently recent gash through the 
l)one on the right of tlie ohclion. No. 759 piresents a circular 
hole above the left occipital comlyle. No. 7<i4 has a similar liole 
on the right sipuamous bone, 11 mm. in diameter. Of these 

' the above was written, the Cambridge Museum has acquired some 

additional fifty-eight skulls, wliicli, sharing the general characters of the fii*3t 
find, are not mentioned here save in a few scattered notes. 



some Slculls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 115 

five skulls which present holes, three are female. I can offer 
no satisfactory explanation of the holes and annular markings. 

Between the skulls of this series there is that general want 
of resemblance which at once convmces the observer that he 
has to deal with the representatives of more than one primitive 
race. There are skulls megaseme and microseme, leptorhine 
and platjwhine, orthognathous and niesognathous, dolichoce- 
phalic and brachycephalic. The burial-ground was that of a 
trilie or people of impure ethnic character, since between the 
various types hereafter defined certain skulls of this series show 
every possible gradation. Inasmuch as there is no historical 
record concerning these skulls, nor display of orientation in 
their burial, we may in consideration of discoveries in the 
neighbourhood assign tliese remains to a people that lived 
antecedent to the Saxon invasion. Indeed, there is but one 
skull (No. 693) in this series'^ that presents in any degree the 
physical characters of Saxon crania. It has the massive ovoid 
form, the well-filled appearance, the full, projecting occiput, 
and heavy jaw with everted angles, which are characteristic 
of the skulls of Saxon races. If the Brandon skulls date, as 
there is every reason to believe, from an age prior to the Saxon 
invasion, the presence of a Saxon in England at this date 
demonstrates that the Saxon invasion took place more gradu- 
ally than history would have us conceive, or that Saxons were 
included in the auxiliary forces introduced by the Romans. 
Doubtless both these alternatives are true. Even hi pre-Roman 
times, the Iceni were a mixed people. Thus the Roman insti- 
tution of the Comes Litoris Saxonica becomes fraught with 
a new meaning. On some such hypotheses, the early Brandon 
folk may well have received a sprinkling of Saxon settlers along 
the Icknield Way from the eastern ports. 

B. Dcsm'iffivi'. 

With the exception of a few cases, I have only employed 
those general measurements and indices which have con- 
clusively proved of value in race-discrimination. I have' 
throughout considered Professor Sergi’s energetic protest;'^) 
against a too implicit reliance on cranial indices when they 
are unaccompanied by descriptions of the various nonnov^, 
and I have not hesitated to adopit many of the convenient- 
terms framed liy him for the varieties in form of norma 
verticalis. I think that few will lie found who consent to- 
the limits to which Professor Sergi pushes his iconoclastic 

^ The further additions to the Brandon skulls include two or three of Saxon- 
like character. 



116 


C. S. Myers. — An Account of 


doctrines ; yet I am not disposed to deny the truth of his 
•statement that sexual differences do not really impair nor alter 
the tj'pes under which the crania are clas.sed. A"ery great 
experience, howe'S'er, is necessary before such an admission can 
Ije made of actual use in practice. 

In grouping the series, I liave omitted the six young or 
distorted skulls (Xos. 681, 697, 701, 706, 711, and 745); these 
will be considered separately. The normal adult skulls have 
Ijeen divided into three groups, according as they fall within 
the limits of brachy-, niesati-, or dolicho-cephaly. On the 
whole, this seems the least unreliable method of grouping 
for the discrimination of race-characters, although the arbi- 
trariness with which the mesaticephahc group is formed may 
seem almost Draconian. 

Deducting the young, distorted and unmeasurable skulls, we 
have a series of fifty-one skulls remaining, of which five belong 
to the brachycephalic, twenty-three to the mesaticephalic, and 
twenty-three to the dolichocephalic gr(.)ups. Of the whoh* 
series it can only be remarked that tlie glabella is never 
prominent, that the supraorltital ridges and glabella in no case 
form a ridge across the skull, and that a t(jrus is never present. 
The groups will now l:>e considered in detail. 

(«) The brachycephalic group. 

Of the five skulls* four are male, and one is female. In only 
three are the facial measurements possible. 

Calvarium . — The frontal region is broad and the frontal 
eminences are raised, so that the forehead is full and well- 
developed. The parietal eminences are also placed high up on 
the skull, causing the norma verticalis to have a regularly ovoid 
or ellipsoid form. The zygomatic arclies are just concealed in a 
vertical view. Except for a slight rise in the region of the 
bregma, the profile of the skull describes an even, uninterrupted 
arc from the ophryon to the opisthion. The skull is very low 
and somewhat flattened; the occiput is not prominent. Viewed 
posteriorly, the .skull has a much flattened pentagonal form. 
The lateral walls of the skull project but slightly; the whole 
calvarium is massive, but neither the mastoid nor other muscular 
processes are prominent. The maximum <jccipital point lies 
about two centimetres above the union. The conceptacula 
cerebelli are regular and alimjst horizontrd. 

Face . — The face is very short and broad. The basi-alveolai 

^ .\ proportionally small number of braeliyceplialic skulls occur in the more 
recent additions to this collection. 



some Skulls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 


117 


length is most remarkahly short. The orbits are broad, and the 
infraorbital portions of the maxilla are deeply sunk, causing the 
malar bones to seem very prominent. The zygomatic processes 
of the temporal bones have an exceptionally wide splay. The 
shape of the nasal bones and of the apertura pyriformis is not 
constant ; it tends to a rather flattened form of nose and an 
indistinct inferior margin of the apertm’e. The palate is small 
and generally elliptical. The teeth are large, a third molar 
is present. The mandible is wide and heavy, with everted 
angles and a small chin. 


(&) The dolicJioceplial ic group. 

Of these twenty-three skulls, twelve are male and eleven 
female. 

Calvarium . — The frontal region is narrow and ill-filled, so 
that the zygomatic arches which project slightly outwards are 
visiljle in a vertical view of the skull. Among the most doli- 
chocephalic skulls there is a tendency to scaphocephaly. Two 
forms of norma verticalis occur, which depend for their difference 
on the shape of the always prominent and capsular occiput. 
The latter varies between (1) an extremely pointed form which 
gives the norma verticalis an ellqmul shape, and (2) a more 
rounded, fuller form which causes tlie roof to appear somewhat 
c(.)ffin-shaped,or,iu Professor iSergi’s nomenclature, rhomboid. The 
main feature associated with the rhomboul skull is a practically 
horizontal inferior plane of the occipital bone. The sloping 
pointed appearance of the posterior end of the ellipsoid skull 
is not confined to the occipital l>one, but often starts from the 
parietal tubera, and thus causes the outline in profile view to 
descend with great suddenness from these eminences to the 
most projecting point of the occiput. Tlie latter point lies a few 
centimetres above the inion. The skulls are in neither case 
markedly high. There is some slight flattening in the regioir of 
the bregma. The mastoid processes are small. 

Face . — The facial length and breadth are r arialile. The malar 
l>oiies are large and especially rough and prominent at the 
maxillo-malar suture. Tlie nasion lies in an often deep depression, 
overhung by the supraorbital ridges wliicli are strongly dec'eloped 
only on the inner side of the orbits immediately external to the 
flattened glabella. Tire nasal bones are thin and generally long. 
At their free extremity tliey are arched concavely forwards. 
The nose is moderately, at times markedly, ridged. The alveolar 
border of the external nares is generally ill-marked. The 
mandible is slight, the coronoid process large, and the angle of 
the jaw non-everted. The prominence of the well-marked 



118 


C. S. Myers. — An Account of 


triangular chin is emphasised bv a flattening of that part of the 
alveolar arch which carries the lower incisor and canine teeth. 
The teeth, poorly preserved, are of medium size ; the tliird 
molar is never absent. The teeth are worn unusually flat. Tlie 
palate is always highly arched and almost U-shaped. 

(c) Mesaticephalic group. 

Of these twenty-three .skrdls, twelve belong to males, eleven 
to females. As a group, they are intermediate between the 
members of tlie brachycephalic an{l dulichncephalic groups. 
Since therefore they present no significant type of their own, 
I have found myself quite unable to describe any features 
common to them apart from those already mentioned as common 
to the whole series. I append the sub-groups into which I have 
divided tlie mesaticephalic skulls. 

(a) The skull No. 693 stands alone in being far more massive, 
with stouter malar bones, a more arched calvarium, and a more 
capsular occiput than any skulls in the brachycephalic group. 
It is the only skull of probably Saxon origin.' 

(/9) Several skulls are obviously of mixed type. In its 
calvarial form and measurements one. No. 686, appears to 
correspond ■with the sub-group (7), but in its facial measurements 
agrees closely with the sub-group (S). Other crania, Nos. 687, 
735, and 757, also impure, on the whole fall under sub- 
group (7). 

(7) The male skull No. 758, and the female skulls. Nos. 701, 
709, 710, 746 and 759, present a general resemblance to the 
ellipsoid division of the dolichocephalic group. The female 
skulls, Nos. G85, 694 and 734, and with less certainty No. 700, 
fall in the same sub-group (6). 

(S) Three male crania, Nos. 714, 743, and 739, show a 
general agreement to those of the brachycephalic group above 
described. 

(e) The two very long, broad, capacious but imperfect calvaria 
Nos. 698, 699, with wide frontal regions, bear a general mutual 
resemblance. 

(^) The male skull, No. 703, and calvarium, No. 698, are very 
like each other in cranial measurements, both of them being 
on the verge of dolichocephaly. The receding forehead of the 
latter bears evidence, however, of possible distortion. In 
another connection I shall give a further description of the 
former skull. 

(g) The female calvarium of rhomboid form No. 708 resembles 
that division of the dolichocephalic group. 


^ See previous note on p. 115. 



some Skulls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 


119 


{d) Yoiovj and distorted skulls. 

The yotuig skulls are Xos. 681, 697, and 711d The two 
latter are exceedingly like each other, with probably a year’s 
difference in age ; the one is cutting, the other has just cut its 
first molar tooth. Xo. 681 is an older, alino.st definitely formed 
cranium of rhomboid form in vertical view, and of markedly 
pentagonal form . in occipital view. The third molar tooth is 
uncut ; the forehead recedes, the muscular processes are small. 

The obviously distorted skulls are Xos. 700, 706, 745. The 
first is exceedingly scaphocephalic, but is so incomplete as to 
render a full description impossible. It is interesting to note 
that the sagittal, coronal and lambdoidal sutures are all well- 
marked. Xo. 70G presents an irregular posthumous distortion. 
In X’o. 745 the coronal suture is absent except at the stephan- 
ion, the sagittal suture is almost obliterated, and there are 
obscure traces of an epactal bone ; the skull is so distorted that 
the maximum point of elevation of the calvarium lies in front 
of the vertical plane between the two pteria. 

The SuTUitES. 

With the following few exceptions, the sutures assume a 
normal course and character. In Xo. 676, however, they are 
strikingly simple ; they are simple at the glabella in Xos. 687 
and 759. The metopic suture is present, completely in Xos. 695, 
713, 737 and 764, and partially in Xos. 688 and 693. The 
basilar suture is open in Xo. 707. 

WoitMiAN Boxes. 

Xo wormian liones at the pterion (ossa pterica) occur in the 
skulls of this series. They lie most commonly along the course 
of the lambdoid suture. Two skulls, Xos. 732 and 745, 
have an obscurely defined bone at the apex of the lambda. 
Xos. 710 and 737 bear epactal bones measuring 10 x 21 mm. 
and 38 x 34 mm. respectively ; the former shows wormian 
bones near the right a.sierion. Immediately below the apex 
of the lambda there are four small bones in Xo. 687, three on 
the left, and one on the right arm of the lambdoid suture. 
Xo. 714 bears a bone, 14 x 19 mm., to the right, and Xo. 734, 
two large bones to the left of the apex of the lambda. The 
latter also has a bone at the left, and two at the right asterion. 
In Xo. 688, a bone occurs in the left arm of the lambdoid suture; 
in X o. 735, three small bones are present on the right, and five 
on the left arm of the same suture. At the level of the 

' Three or four young skulls are included iu the results of more recent 
excavations. 



120 


C. y. Myees. — An Account of 


inioii in 714, there is a small bone on each arm of the 
lambdoiJ suture. Below the right asterioii, in Xo. 733, a bone 
occurs. At the left asterion Xo. 689 presents a wormian bone. 
In Xo. 693 the bregma bears a small bone ; another is also 
situated at the right asterion; just above the right asterion a 
small bone occurs in Xo. 744. 

The PxERioy. 

Where the sutures are not obliterated, the most common form 
is the pterion in H. Xo. 694 has a pterion in K on each 
side. In the young skull, Xo. 681, the union of the frontal and 
temporal bones on each side prevents the sphenoidal and parietal 
bones from meeting. 

The Teeth. 

In the short palates which are specially prevalent in brachy- 
cephalic skulls, the teeth tend to become crowded out. In 
Xo. 679, the second incisor had ne\-er been developed, while- 
the lower third molar teeth are pushed back so far that they 
lie in the same ^■ertical plane with the coronoid process. 

The Indices. 

(i.) The Cranial Breadth-Indcc. 

This varies within the limits of 71’2 to 81'1. The brachy- 
cephalic skulls are not so numerous as the d(dichocephalic, nor 
is their character so intensified. They are strongly microseme 
(78-82), are leptorhiue or faintly mesorhine and are orthog- 
nathous. 

(ii.) The Cranial Heitjht-Ind>\i . 

This ranges from 64-1 to 75'4. Thus no skull is distinctly 
akrocephalic. Of forty skulls, eleven male, and si.x female 
skulls are tapeinocephalic, while thirteen male and ten female 
.skulls are metriocephalic. Among the tapeinocephalic the ratio 
of frequency of the male and female skulls is 9 : 7, and among 
the metriocephalic is 6 : 7. From tliis calculation follows the 
rarely drawn conclusion that in the present series the female 
skulls are soniewliat higher than the male. In only two cases 
(Xos. 758 and 731) are the height- and breadth-indice.s erpial. 
In one instance only, Xo. 678, does the height-index exceed the 
bieadth-inde.x. The most tap)einoceplialic skulls are dolicho- 
cephalic. 

(iii.) The Faded Indices of KoUnWiii}. 

In a certain number of cases the condition of the zygomatic 
arches rendered calculation of these indices impo.ssible. In 
other cases it was a matter of some difficulty t(j fit the lower 



some Shills diseovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 


121 


jaw t(j the skull, a long search being often necessary before a 
skull could be matched ^yitb its strayed jaw. The iipper facial 
index varies from 48‘4 to 62-6, the total facial index from 83-9 
to 90’1 : the latter index was obtainable only in six skuUs. 
llelying, therefore, on the upper facial index, I find that the 
broad-faced skulls are confined to the brachycephalic and the 
long-faced to the dolichocephalic group. 

(iv.) The Kasai Index. 

This varies from 43'4 to 62-8. Adopting the method of 
seriation, I find that of twenty-eight adult skulls, fourteen fall 
into the leptorhine, nine into the mesorhine, and five into the 
platyrhine group. Xineteen of these skulls have a nasal index 
between 48 and 52. The two young skulls, Xos. 697 and 711, 
present an index of 528 and 568 respectively. The most 
platyrhine skulls are dolichocephalic, tapeinocephalic and meso- 
seme; they much resemble each other. In the platyrhine group 
the male skulls predominate, 4 ; 1. 

(v.) The Orbital Indco:. 

This ranges within even wider limits than those of the nasal 
index — from 78 to 100. Of twenty-six instances, sixteen male 
and ten female skulls, seven fall into the megaseme, seven into 
the microseme, and twelve into the mesoseme group. The ratio 
(if frequency in the male and female skulls in the microseme 
group is 31 : 20, in the mesoseme group 63 : 20, and in tlie 
megaseme group 1:10. Only one microseme skull, Xo. 686, 
approaches dolichocephaly. This skull is, as has been before 
mentioned, probably of very mixed descent. The most megaseme 
skulls are dolichocephalic and orthognathic. 

(vi.) The Gnathic Index of Floiccr. 

In the orthognathic brachycephalic skulls, Xos. 679, 687, 688, 
(Bi. = 78-6 —81-8), the basi-alveolar line has the remarkably 
short length of 84-85 mm. The gnathic index througliout the 
whole series ranges between 86-7 and 105 3. Oidy one skull, 
Xo. 735, a male, is decidedly prognathous (On. i. = 105‘3}. Of 
twenty-five adult undistorted skulls seventeen — thirteen male 
and four female — are orthognathous, and seven — two mule and 
live female — are mesognathou.s. The gnathic inde.x of eleven 
skulls falls within the limits 91-96. ITte mesognathic skulls 
arc all dolichocephalic or nearly so, very tapeinocephalic, and 
never leptorhine nor microseme. 

(vii.) The Bnlatal Inder. 

In relatively few cases was this index obtainable. 



122 


C. S. Myers. — An Account of 


C. Critical. 

My first impression %yas that the differentiation of the 
rhomboid from the ellipsoid form of dolichocephahc crania 
would prove valueless from the standpoint of race-discrimination. 
Siibsecpient constant inspection of the skulls have convinced me 
that, although there may he a few skulls of pure descent, the 
majority of the dolichocephalic group belong to no uniform race 
of men, but show that variety and intei changeability of indices 
and forms which are so characteristic of iiiixecl peoples. I set to 
work, therefi.ire, to dissect out from this group elements of 
British, Roman, Gallic, Saxon and other Teutonic or Celtic nature. 

I find that the skrdl Xo. 703 and the calvarium Xo. 698 agree in 
nearly all physical signs with those <tf the Long Barrow race; they 
particularly resemble two skrtlls of this race of which one was 
found at Eodmartou, Gloucestershire, and is figured in the 
“ Crania Britannica ” (Plate 59), and the other was described by 
Dr. Garson in vol. xxii of this Journal among the skulls of Howe 
Hill Barrow, Yorkshire. The Howe Hill skulls, lent to the 
Cambridge iluseuni, were unfortunately recalled just previous to 
my discovery of this resemblance. The close correspondence in 
measurements is readily noticeable. 



SKULL FROM. 

1 

A 1 

n 1 

dS 

o 

» 

ill 

' i II i 

Minimum 

frontal 

bicadth. 

Stephanie 

breadth. 

Frontal 

arc. 

"a 

5s ti 

•» 39 

1. 

Rodmarton 

. 201 

144 

■ 139 

? 

? 

136 

143 

2. 

Howe Barrow, 11 

. 194 

145 

133 

100 

129 

126 

139 

3. 

Brandon, tj98 .. 

. 194 

146 

133 

p 

P 

125 

128 

4. 

Brandon, 703 . . 

. 194 

145 

133 

1 92 

112 

1 13L 

1 

131 



' 3 

• 

'x u 

1 - • 

£ £ -5 

« tt it 

a 

IIP 

y 

3 1 

1 i 

= 3 
d y 

0 2 -5 
” = 

cl-S 

2 y 

^ tc 


c S 


S £ « 


isS i 


2 Si: 



1* 

^ 131 

410 

p 

556 

? } 


114 

? 

p 

2 

114 

379 

42 

540 

309 

l2l 

114 

64 

109 

3 

127 

380 

35 

5 JO 

.323 

127 

? 

? 

p 

4 

124 

(386) 

? 

540 

323 1 

123 

? 

82 

105 



d "3 

S 3 P 

i c - 

SS ti — 

® S ■— 
"ESS 

H ^ 
s * — 

& S 

£“1 H 

- ? 

c 

= u 

Nasal 

length. 

Nasal 

htOBillh. 

1» 

132 

p 

p 

p 

? 

? 

? 

? 


2 

131 

100 

; 63 

105 

(23) 

40 

33 

52 

24 

3 

? 

? 

t ? 

p 

* V 

? 


? 

V 

4 

iM 

98 

1 64 

102 

24 

39 

i 33 

, 53 

! 2a 



some Skulls discovered at Brandoa, Sujf'olk. 


123 



i a: 

^ c 

= 5 

*3 — . ' 

ei a. — 1 

i 

6.= 5 


*3 

r U 

5 s . 
.sex 

1‘S’i 

(liiathic 

index. 

Orbital 

index. 

1» 

[? 

p 

72 

i 69 

p 

f 

p 

? 

p 

2 

54 

p 

74‘7 ' 

68-6 

p 

46 -2 

96-3 

94-2 

82-5 

3 

p 

p 

75 ‘3 1 

i ? 

p 

P 

p 

? 

? 

4 

! 

53 

66 

74-7 

68 -6 

62-6 

43-6 


P 

84-6 


Compare the first line for an explanation or tlie •'kiill'!. 


Xor is the relation between these skulls only discernible in 
measurement. A reference to tbe engraving of the Eodmarton 
skull figured in the “ Thesaurus Cranioriim ” and in the “ Crania 
Britanuica ” shows that in every point of form the Brandon skull 
Xo. 703 offers the closest resemblance to it. This fact may go 
.some way towards establishing the antiquity of the present series 
of crania, as the existence of so pure a Long-Barrow stock in latei 
years amid an ethnically imptxre race is at lea.st doubttul. 

But this is not the only type of Long Barrow skulls : indeed it 
is the less familiar of the two which l)r. Garson has been able 
to differentiate. In the second type the measurements of the 
height and length of the skull are rather less, the whole cranium 
is less narrow, the face rather wedge-shaped, and the chin more 
prominent, while the arch of the skull is more pointed in norma 
facialis and the outline is more ellipsoid in norma verticalis. 
Vndoubtedly two of the dolichocephalic Brandon crania, 
Nos. 676 and 742, belong to this second Long Barrow type. 
•Save that the rhomboid form of the norma verticalis is gently 
])ersisteut, they agree in every one of the particulars just 
enunciated. 

There is no trace of the elements of a Bound Burrow race 
among the Brandon crania. Neither in cephalic breadth-index 
nor in cephalic height-index do they show any :ipproach to the 
remarkable hypsibrachycephaly of the Bound Barrow skulls 
The extreme shortness of the cranium, the height and degree of 
projection of the parietal eminences, the prominence ot 
glabella and chin — all characteristics of the Bound Barrow 
I'aee — are wanting in the five bi-achycephalic members of this 
series.' 

The origin of the Bound BaiTow race has been much debated 
from the earliest times of anthropological history. In particular 
they have been identified by some with tbe Ciinbri, by others 
with the Belgse. Our knowledge of the Gimbri. indeed, is no les.s 

^ They are also absent in those skulls which have come to light since this paper 
was written. 



124 


C. S. Myees . — An Account of 


uncertain. Tacitus speaks of them as inhabiting the Ciiersonese, 
if., Jutland and Schleswig-Holstein. They have been variously 
descrilied as Teutonic or Celtic. With greater precision others 
liave associated them with the neolithic Danes. Those who 
assert that the Belgaj were the Eound Barrow race attribute 
to them the introduction of bronze into England. Xow what- 
ever be the origin of this race, whether it be of Cimbrian or 
of some other descent, it was with fair certainty not Belgic. 
The provinces formerly occupied by the Belgae are now 
inhabited, as M. Collignon has shown, by the longest-headed 
people of France. Xeolitliic discoveries in this region point 
to the same conclusion. Therefore, if any migration of Belgic 
Gaids took place at or before the Eoman invasion, it wa.s a 
wash not of brachycephalic. but of dolichocephalic people that 
the British shores received. Dr. Verneau, working on the 
dolmen at Les Mureau.x in the canton of Meulan and in the old 
Belgic province, has published(d) measurements and figures of 
various skulls. These I have compared with the Brandon series 
in the hope of discovering some traces of resemblance, if ever 
any Belgic dolichocephalic folk penetrated into Sufiblk. So 
fur as comparisons are possible without actual view of both 
collection.s, 1 have been unable to establish any relation between 
them. 

The brachycephalic skulls of tlie pre.sent series are absolutely 
as distinct from other Gallic skulls, with which I have comi^ared 
them, as they are from the British Eound Barrow type. I have 
been equally unsuccessful in an endeavour to find traces of a 
true Eoman or Italian element among them. Xeither in the 
Xicolucci collection of the Museum at the Eoyal College of 
Surgeons, nor among the skrdls described by Barnard Davis 
ill tlie “ Thesaurus CTaniorum,” have I found Italian skulls that 
show noteworthy resemblance to the Brandon series. The 
latter do not pjosses.s the delicate aquiline nose, the prominent 
supraciliary ridges, the scpiare face and jaw which are charac- 
teristic of the ancient Eoman race. Of what race, then, are 
tliese brachycephalic Brandon skulls ? Decision so far has been 
guided Solely liy the method of exclusion ; we are in a position 
to say what they probably are not. Beyond criticism of this 
negative character I have nothing to offer. Perhaps I may add 
one note which I find that I have made. In the Cambridge 
Museum there are .several skulls styled Eomano-British, 
i'e->euibling the brachycephalic skulls of the present serie.s. 
They may be the results of similar conditions of intermarriage. 

There is considerable evidence to show that a large Germanic 
population was introduced at the Eoniau invasion. In many 
cases, at least, the German chiefs were allies of the Eoman.s 



125 


some Skulls discovered at Brandon, Suffolk. 

aucl with armed followers were brought over to England, being 
entrusted with the conquest of various parts of the c<juntry. 
Latham quotes('^) from a panegyric of ilamertius to prove that 
as early as in the reign of Diocletian (284-305 a.d.) there were 
Germans in Britain, iloreover, in the reign of Constantine the 
younger (337-340 A.D.), Crocus, an Alemaunic king, was 
proclaimed emperor at York. Still later, within twenty miles 
of Brandon, Buckenham in Norfolk was probably the settlement 
of the Bucinohantes (about 372 a.d.), an Alemaunic tribe who 
with their chief Fraomar lauded in Britain under the orders of 
Valentinian. Ammianus Marcellinus (tl. 380 a.d.) locates the 
home of the Bucinohantes opposite Mainz on the right bank of 
the Ehine, and states that Fraomar was given the authority of a 
tribune in England (Bk. xxix, chap. 4). Tacitus again speaks 
of certain German tribes that had fought (69 a.d.) with great 
bravery in Britain (“Hist.,” iv., 12). Indeed, extending from 
Caesar’s mention (“ de Bello Galhco,” v, 12) of the migration of 
continental tribes into Britain down to the times of the Anglo- 
Saxon invasion, ample evidence exists to show that from a very 
early date various Germanic peoples began to settle in this 
coimtry. 

The Alemaunic skulls conform to a type which at the hands 
of Germanic anthropologists has received the name, Eeihen- 
gniber or Grave-Row. 1 have been impressed with the likeness 
of certain skulls in the present series to many of the old Grave- 
Row type, and I venture to publish the results of my com- 
parison, seeing how near to Brandon an Alemaunic tribe had 
probably once settled. So far as I know, it is the first attempt 
to establish a definite relation betwem these Alemaunic tidbes 
and the early people of Britain. The characteristics of the 
Grave-Row type are suinmetl up by Ecker(f) ; they are in 
every way applicable to the ellipsoid division of the dolicho- 
cephalic Brandon skulls. The cranium, he says, is long, the 
forehead rather narrow and frequently low : the superciiiarv 
arches are generally well-developed, the vault is either flat or 
rises from the temporal crest to the sagittal suture like the 
sides of a roof ; the parietal tubei'a are insignificant except in 
children and women. “ Above all the marked development of 
the occiput is especially characteristic.” The great occipital 
projection, he continues, is in the form either of a cone or of a 
pyramid. The maximum occipital point lies above and behind 
the external occipital protuberance. The infranuchal plane of 
the occiput is nearly horizontal. 

In thus condensing Ecker’s description I feel that I am merelv 
re-stating the characters of the ellipsoid group of dolicho- 
cephalic skulls. I pass over the work of v. Holder, whose 



126 


C. S. MyePlS . — All Account of 


conclusions are siilistantiallv those of Ecker, mid come to the 
more exhaustive papers of Gildemeister. This anthropologist 
divides the lleiheiigraber type into two divisions, according as 
the parietal eminences are strongly or feebly developed. In 
certain features the Brandon skulls appear to agree with the one 
dis'ision, in others with the second division which Gildemeister, to 
my mind somewhat arliitrarily, has thus made. Like Ecker, (?) he 
lays stress on the absolutely peculiar prominence of the occiput, 
the height of the orbits, the delicacy of the upper jaw, the length 
of the palate and the degree of orthognathism, features all of 
which are noticeable to a \'arying extent in the ellipsoid group 
of the present series. Out of the seven skulls (three male, 
Xos. 712, 736, 738, and four female. Nos. 709, 710, 746, 759), 
which perhaps most markedly bear the Grave-Eow or “Eata\dan”^ 
characteristics, not one allows of the usual measurements being 
completely taken. I am unable, therefore, to present collaterally 
the indices of the Brandon skulls with those of the Alemanuic 
crania. But to my mind there is little lost by this, since the 
averages deduced liy His, Ecker, v. Holder and Virchow from 
their respective measurements differ from each other considerably. 
The average cephalic index of the tj-pe is variously computed to 
be 707, 71'3, 72 and 74-9. Tire height-inde.x ranges from 
67 to 78‘2. Lastly Gildemeister shows three female skulls in 
the Bremen ccllectiou which have a nasal index of 54'0, 63’1, 
ab'O respectively. However, in spite of the obvious admixture 
of alien blood in later times, there is every reason to believe that 
the Grave-Eow type, which so many anthropologists have empha- 
sised, formerly existed pure. The types which Gildemeister 
figures may therefore be accepted as genuine, in spite of the 
subserpient penetration of the aUied Saxon and of eastern 
elements. I venture to say that the outlines of these skulls 
as seen in the accompanying plate convince one with far 
greater elorpicnce than would a column of indices and measure- 
ments. 

History and physical anthropology tend thus to show the 
settlement of Alemannic tribes at Brandon. Beddoe speaks of 
the Alemannic as a fair-haired people sprung from a stock 
common to the Saxons and Franks. Now dark and red hair has 
also been found in Alemannic graves. The predominance of 
black hair in Brandon at the present day would therefore lead 
one to conclude that the pure Alemanni had a high index of 
nigrescence or that the dark-haired British have prevailed over 
their fair invaders. 

Except tliat tliej- are lower and have a more prominent temporo-parietal 
region, the “ Batavian” resembles the Grave-Bow types. 



some SkpUi discovered at Brandon, Svffolk. 


127 


Summary. 

( 1) The brachyceplialic skulls, M’hicli are ortliogiiathous, 

microseme and leptorhine, agree most closely Mith the 
“ Eomano-British type ” which is to be found throughout 
England in old Eoman settlements. 

(2) The dolichocephalic skulls resolve themselves into the 

Long Barrow types (of Clarson) and the Eeihengraber 
types (of Gildeineister). 

(3) The platyrhine, mesognathous, niesoseme group of 

subdolichocephalie skulls may owe its occurrence to the 
appearance of Slaves concondtant with the Eoinan in- 
vasion of Britain. 

(4) There is not more than one definitely Saxon skull in the 

series. 

(5) The larger number of skulls exhiljit cliaracters inter- 
mediate l.ietweeu tliese various types. The burial-ground 
belonged, therefore, to a people which had for some time 
been living in a state of friendship and intermarriage, 
although composed of such ethnically diverse races as 
have been dissected out. Villages of the neighbourhood 
retain to this day evidences of a once prevalent system 
of strict endogamy. The existence of this custom 
induces the anthropologist to place greater reliance in 
his conclusions, especially when, as in the present series, 
the proof of the antii|uity of the skulls is extremely 
unsatisfactory. 

For allowing me the material for this paper, and for 
ever-ready and valued help, I have to express my sincere 
gratitude to Professor JIacalister. 


Eefcrenccs. 

(a) “ The Eace^ of Britain.” By Dr. John Beddoe. (Bristol, 1885.) 

(^) “Britannia." By Camden. (Londmii, 1580.) 

(^) “ Le Yarietu Uiiiane.” Principi e methodo di classificazione. By Pr. 
Giuseppe Sergi (Turin). 

('^) “ L’Ailee Couverte des ilureaux.” Bv Dr. Verneau. (“ L’Anthropologie,” 
1890.) 

(^) “ The Ethnologv of the Bntisli Isles.” By K. G. Latham. (London, 1852.) 
“Crania Gennanica meridionalis occidentalis.” By Dr. A. Ecker. 
(Freiburg, 1865 ) 

(^) “Kin Betrag zur Kenntniss norddeutscher Schadelformen.” By Dr. 
Gildeineister. (“ Archiv f. Anth.,” 1878.) 



128 


E. M. Connolly. — Social Life in Fanti-land. 



Explanation of the Plate. 

Fig^. I. — X(t. 736 of the Brandon skulls. 

Fig. II. — A variety of tlie Grave-Row type. 

Fig. III. — Xo. 760 of the Brandon skulls. 

Fig. it. — T he “ Batavian” type. 

Fig 0 . II and lY are copied from Gildemeister’s paper {loc. cit.). They are 
also to he found in Beddoe’s Races of Britain ” (pp. 46, 47). 


Soci.iL Life in Fanti-land. By E. M. Cunnolly. 

Life on the we.stern coast of Africa, whether one be trader or 
official, French, German or British, would he a.s desolate as Ovid 
found his residence at Tonii, did not the mind find a diversion 
in a vigilant observation of the habits of the primitive folk. 
There is frequently a disposition on the part of a white popula- 
tion sojourning among a negro people both from a sense of 
superiority and from familiarity to regard native customs, 
symbols, and beliefs, as unworthy tlie attention of an European. 
But in an explanation of these lies a power as great as that of 
tlie wand of I’rospero to drive the clouds of darkness from many 



E. M. CoNXOLLY. — Social life iii Fanti-land. 


129 


a practic?, whose origin is lost in antiquity. In such a country 
as the Gold Coast with its hinterland of Ashanti, no natiye 
ceremonial may be passed unnoticed without a loss of informa- 
tion useful to the official and to the anthropologist. Eyen in 
trayels through parts of the Fanti country densely populated 
and for a long period within the reach of whateyer ciyilising and 
religious influences may exist in the coast towns, there are 
habits and suryiyals of older habits jiuzzling to the inquirer. 

On a journey from Salt Pond — Akiinfu is its natiye Fanti 
name — in the rainy season of 1894, my first stopping place was 
a large natiye town called ilankessim, only eight miles from 
the coast. The sides of the broad road leading to it, which 
may be considered comfortable enough for "West African resi- 
dents who haye to trayel long distances by hammock, were cut 
through red day and sloped to a channel in tlie centre by tlie 
torrents of rain, but were pleasantly bordered by a profusion 
of wild flowers, by some species of laburnum, and by a common 
flower which maybe called an African marigold 
I’lautations were too rarely met of eassaya neglected and oyer- 
growu with weeds, or of corn, then ready for the harcest home, 
through which flew the bright-coloured Cardinal-birds and the 
hollow-noted Afrua or Clock-bird* {Cueyfhaix Fena, L.). It 
was a "Wednesday, and when the market-iflace was reached, it 
was found to be coyered with kenki-leayes, the debris of the 
day’s market, for that day and Saturday are market-days. The 
kenki called Fukuii is composed of the grain of the Indian corn, 
washed and ground in ancient style between two stones, boiled, 
strained, ancl then hardened into round balls varying from one 
to three pounds, covered with the corn leaves. 

The town of Mankessim was large, of the usual regular 
African pattern, with four roads parting from the centre to the 
points of the compass. Many stages of evolution in house 
building were visible, from the little bamboo and plantain hut 
to the red clay or sirisk huts with a lattice-like reed mat 
covering the windows on the outside, and to the white-washed 
swish houses with shutters or even jalousies. Of course there 
was a "Wesleyan school, but far more interesting was a Hausa 
cantonment where there was the workshop of a blacksmith 
(otonfu, F., makeri, H.), full of bolts, hinges, and cutlasses made 
from hoop iron, and where might be seen a irurin-salla (H.) or 
Mohammedan place of worship shaded in front by the Ahonton- 
tree, and behind by the well-known Hausa-named Baggarua, a 
species of sand-box. The irurin-salla was merely an enclosure 
like a wattled cote, with a prayer-mat or lu-u. (H.) in the 
Mihrab or corner pointing towards the east ; and from the little 

* This bird is known to Germans as Hollenkurako. 

VOI. XXVI. K 



130 


K. JI. Co'SSOthY.— Social life in Fanti-land. 


gate sluug by lianes one could hear proclaimed by the Mallam 
the same call to prayer that sounds from the mouth of the 
imaum from a Turkish mosipie. 

There was a square in the town surrounded by enormously 
tall cotton-trees, whose lofty tops no doubt occasioned tlie name 
hJcii/'dpoji ch'ae, F., or eagle’s seat, whilst the ground was called 
mdrn duf^c, or resting place of skulls. This name then was 
almost the only mark to indicate that this town was the former 
capital of the Fanti- speaking tribes or indeed divided that 
honour with Abrakrampja. The heads of all criminals after 
decapitation were here exposed, and the bodies cast to the 
vultures. As I walked over the square, attracted by its name 
of evil omen, I came upon a couple of skulls not yet completely 
hidden by the accumulations of the years. What were the 
spirits that tenanted these bone prisons, it is idle to ask. The 
African e.xecution destroys or rather destroyed the name of the 
victim as effectually as it quenched his life. When the decision 
of the Court of Elders had been given by the voice of the chief, 
if the sentence were one of death, the wretched culprit was 
immediately taken from the king’s palace, brought to the place 
of execution, forced to kneel down, and thus beheaded. The 
body was cast away as a polluted thing to the vultures, the 
head left exposed in a public place such as the ntsirn’ dase., on 
the ground or on stakes, as a warning to offenders of chiefs, and 
the name of the dearl, now become a superstitious cause of ill- 
fortune to those that pronounced it, passed for ever into the 
eternal silence. 

Nearly a year later, in the rainy season of 1895, it was my 
duty to ascend the river Pra, or Pusum Pra, i.c., Fetish or Spirit 
Pra, for about twenty miles to a lonely' village, placed sheer on 
the bank with a waving background of plantain groves and palm 
trees close behind. There an inquiry had to be opened into a 
thrilling story' of three murders and a suicide. It ajipeared 
that a farmer named Kwabiua Daniua had two wives and one 
daughter, and, being of a violent disposition, treated his house- 
hold badly. His mother, desirous to avenge the injuries of her 
daughters-in-law and to punish her son for libs rlomestic tyranny, 
pionouuced over Kwabiua the cur-ie of Katewif, a curse whose 
efiects are partly a species of boy'cotting, and partly the results 
of a belief in a personal Xeme.sis, who l.irings the unhappy' man, 
over whom the curse is pronounced, into a .state of frenzy. The 
use of this oath is punishable under British law on the Gold 
Coast by tine or imprisonment. The immediate consequences 
of the taking of the oath bv the mother against her son were 
that he, alter a declaration that he had to obey Katewir, hacked 
his two wives and elaughter to pieces and blew his own brains 



E. il. CosxoLLY. — Social hfe in Fanti-land. 


131 


out. Such a yoke has custom fortified by antiquity and by the 
terrors of ignorance imposed on this rude people, that life is 
sacrificed and names are unmentioned in deference to usages of 
which the sa\'age even is sceptic but which he yet fears to break. 

Extent of Fanti-land . — The two districts alluded to, Salt 
Pond reaching to Winneba, along the sea-coast eastward, and 
Chama, on the Pra, reaching to Princes Ei%'er on the west, may 
be considered the marine frontiers of the Fanti people. Indeed, 
some are of opinion, including many natives, that Fanti-land 
properly so-called, ought to extend on the sea-coast only, from 
Cape Coast Castle to Winnebah. Inland, Fanti-land spreads 
out like a fan, reaching to the headwaters of the Pra among the 
Kibbi hills on the east, and ha\'iug Ashanti on the north, 
reaching to Sehwi on the west, where a language akin to Fanti 
is spoken. Fanti-land does not, tlierefore, comprise all the 
British posse.ssions of the Gold Coast, for our western boundary 
is a line conterminous with French pos.session3 running north 
to 9’ and 10® X., and nearly 5® \V. of Greenwich, and our 
eastern boundary is with German Togoland, the Eiver Volta, 
wliere it issues from a neutral zone nearly in the meridian 
of Greenwich and 8° X. ; and there is an undefined hinterland. 
But the language Fanti is that chiefly spoken, most generally 
understood, and may be considered the principal descendant 
with Ashanti of a language perliaps Twi, which is usually re- 
garded as^tlie parent of Ashanti, Fanti, Akim, Akuapim, and 
modern Twi. 

The traditions of early migrations among the Fantis are so 
entangled tliat it is difficult to evolve a continuous narrative 
out of them. Former writers, such as Cruikshank and Bowdich, 
in whose days these traditions were piously guarded by the 
chiefs as part of their inheritance, found them so incredible 
that they paid little attention to them, beyond deducing from 
them that the Fantis and Ashantis were <jriginally one race, 
dri^'en from the interior of Equatorial Africa towards the 
sea-board by tlie pressure of conquering enemies. There are 
many words in Fanti to indicate plants and animals which 
do not now exist in the country, or which, like the horse and 
the cow, may never have been known to exist there, but which 
abound in the Grunshi and iMoshi countries west of the Kong 
mountains. These regions have been always the special purlieus 
and pre.ser\-es, and are so, even still, of the Mohammedan slave 
raiders from the countries on the Xiger, and it is priffiable that 
long before the introduction of Mohammedanism, the manlier 
ancestors of the Fulas and Hau.sas drove the less hardy Fantis 
and Ashantis into the primitive forest from the open plains and 
slopes of the hills. 



132 


E. M. CoxxoLLY . — Sucial life in Fanti-land. 


Origin of Same and Face . — The word Fanti, %vlncli is merely 
an English pronunciation for Mfantsi, is supposed to he derived 
from fan, tlie name of a vegetable like wild eabhage, and U. di, 
or dzi. to cat, the explanation being that the Fantis, in their 
first keen necessities on entering tlie northern limits of the 
primitive forest, were obliged te subsist on some such plant. 
A similar origin is .‘ought for the name Ashanti, from Asaii, 
an unknown plant, and ti. It seems as likely that the word 
might be o-sa, war, nscl, strong drink, or u-iun, a barn, for they 
would all indicate the peculiarities of the negro and his passion- 
ate leferences, in which he cannot be said to be alone among 
mankind, to the deliglits of food and drink. However true 
this be, there is no doubt that the Fanti belongs to the Great 
Bantu stock, loth in race and language, whose members reach 
from Senegal to Tanganyika and from that sheet of water to the 
land of the Hottentots. Inteispersed among these races may 
be found peoples like Jollofs, Bambana, Fulani, and Hausa, 
who can hardly be comsidered the same, and for whose race 
and language the term Hamitic seems more appropriate. The 
Hausawr. or Hausas form the irregular troops in Fanti-land, 
and have gradually created settlements there, characterised by 
industry, order and respect for authority. 

Difisiu/i into triles . — Traditional legends among the Fantis 
state that very early some wise seer divided their nation for 
g(A'ernnieut into seven tribes, but the names of these tribes and 
the purposes for whicli they were used indicate a system of 
totemism, combined with a practice of exogamy, or marrying 
out, which it is considered amongst the natives of the greatest 
benefit for the improvement of the species to comply with, 
even at the present day. The names used are mainly old 
words, nearly obsolete, some indeed, fallen completely out of 
use, though the meaning is known. They are : — 


1. Kvfmna 

2. Etchul 

3. Es6 

4. Nitchica 


5. Eniina 


6. Ehradzi 


7. Ahrutu 


= huffala 

= leopard, the common name is o-sibu. GyCihin = 
panther. 

= bush- cat, or fox. 

= dog, but this is never used to signify dog, except 
in a part of the country where the people are said 
to be older than the Fantis, that is, in Ahanta. 

= said to mean parrot, and to indicate patience, the 
common word for parrot being e-wir'iv\ Anuma ~ 
bird. 

= the old word for lion, the modern one being 
Aicindadzi.' Ahradzi or Ehradzi means also 
plantain. 

r= corn stalk, or O-hertu = puff-adder-hole. 


^ Another werj for bor, rarely used, is Sarmusaa, meaning the eunuch of 
the desert. 



K. il. COXNOLLY. — Social life m Fanii-land. 


1S3 


If the last two symbolise by the meaning, a species of progress 
from hunting to agriculture, especially in those branches to 
whicli the negro is most devoted, where the labour is trivial and 
the harvest considerable, they were totems probably taken long 
after the others, and express perhaps a significant increase of 
population in early days. A Kwonna man could marry only an 
Eso girl, and vice rersu, and so with the others. These tribal 
divisions are in reality totemic and not a <rradual srowth of 
clans or families under the leadership of individuals. The 
essential characteristic of the clan, that all are supposed to be 
of the same blood as the chief, is here absent, and the external 
totemic distinction produces no bond of kinship or hospitality 
which exists among members of the same family, however widely 
separated from each other and from the common ancestor. Con- 
sanguinity, remote though it be, is still a living factor among 
tribes who have the universal proverb — though some African 
water is quite as thick as blood — whilst the totemic symbol, 
like a church in decay, loses every day some of its influence and 
mystery. 

The Fantis then are negroes, inhabiting a small part of the 
sea-board of British West Africa, and about 20,000 scpiare miles 
of the interior, and number approximately one million. The 
average Fauti is rather of a dull brown colour than of the black 
seen on the (.lainbia and the Congo, and, to parody Suetonius’s 
descri[)tion of Caesar, might be spoken of as a man of dark brown 
complexion, dark eyes, curly black hair, medium stature, and 
well formed limbs. The average height is 5 feet 6 inches, such 
being my experience in measuring recruits. The features are 
jileasing, both in activity and repo.se, and, though the nose be 
flat and the lips protruded, the face, whilst having prognathous 
javs, is not unduly platyoprosopic. In fact, a well-built Fanti, 
of good colour, when dressed in decent native attire, has an 
attractive presence, and may be regarded as equal in appearance 
to the best members of the Hamitic stock, the Fulas and Hausas, 
though devoid of their quiet dignity. The same remark holds 
good of the women, many of whom in the better families, where 
there has been no intermixture of slave blood, have such regular 
features and light colour that they might be called prettv.^ 

All alike, men and women, have the odour peculiar to the 
negro, whilst negroes profess to detect a peculiar smell from a 
white man. The odour varies from a faint almost indefinable 
tciilette vinegar-like smell in a clean and inactive negro to a 
powerful emanation like the smell of mixed rancid butter and 

^ The f((ce m rr^s of Fanti — to in<licate Funti origin — are three cuts in front 
of the ear on each side in a line parallel to the rauiua of the jaw, and are known 
in Fauti as etU'i, i.e , scars, merelr. 



134 


E. M. CoNXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


burning feathers or hair in a negro actively employed and 
persjiiring, and possibly not over-clean. There is no doubt that 
it does not depend on neglect of the person, as the Fantis are 
very careful of the body, and the rvomen, in particular, are very 
clean in their habits, and even attempt to isguise the odour 
which they are conscious of possessing by the use of various 
perfumes, one of the commonest used and the most pungent 
being derived from the excrement of snakes. The odour is 
probably derived from the insensible perspiration and exudation 
from the sudoriferous glands and sebaceous follicles of the skin, 
and is not lost in the mulatto. English dogs, wlieu brought to 
the Gold Coast, particularly fox-terriers, who do not lose their 
sense of smell like many other breeds, are keenly sensitive to the 
odour of the negro, and show the fact by unmistakable signs. 

Language . — As was mentioned before, the Fanti tongue is 
now the principal descendant of a parent that may have also 
bequeathed Ashanti and ’Twi to posterity, and there is so little 
difference between these branches of the one stem that Fantis 
ituderstand Ashantis better than Brandenburgors do the peasants 
near the Upper Ehine or than labourers from Somerset would 
the miners of Yorkshire. There has not to my knowledge been 
a single trace of an attempt at native writing found in the whole 
Fanti country, though in Awuna, east of the Volta, traces of 
marks inteiicled to be signs for sounds have, I believe, been 
discovered. It was necessary therefore to reduce the language 
to writing, and, unfortunately, the natural difficulty of the 
language has been vastly increased by the dissensions of the 
learned men who undertook the iask. There is one admirable 
example of an African language, admirably reduced to writing, 
Hausa, as given to the world in grammar and dictionary, by the 
late Eev. J. F. Sclibn. This illustrious scholar of Hausa kept 
as close as possible to the Lepsius standard alphabet, and 
produced books which make it now almost ns easy to learn 
Hausa as Italian or German. The students of Fanti were in 
different stages of European scholarship, and accordingly pro- 
duced work.s, in extraordinary spelling and accentuation, some 
written phonetically right through like Christaller’s Chwi or 
’Twi Grammar, others written witli some regard to the origin of 
words, derivative-, compounds, and plurals, but without regard 
to the fact that certain English letters have sounds too peculiar 
and too special to England to be of service universally. 

As regards sounds, the language is markedly nasal, with 
singular mixtures of sibilants and harsh palatals. Here is the 
Lord’s Prayer as it is said in Fanti : — 

Euniradzi n*asor. 

Hen Egra a iwo sur, Wu-dzin hu ntsiw, w’ahindzi mbra, wonye 



E. M. Connolly. — Social life in Faati-land. 


135 


w'apedzi wo asasi clu, de mbre woyen’ wo sur. Ma hen nde sii hen dada 
edziban. Na fa hen mfum hr hen, de mbre hen su Yedzi fir hon a wofuni 
hen. Mma ngya hen nko ngyigyem ; na yi hen wo mbusuni’. 

Osand^ ahindzin’ onyi tumn’ onyi enyimnyamn' oye TYudzi, Da, Amen. 

Words depend so mucli on intonation or emphasis for their 
meaning that simple root-words are frequently used to express 
the most opposite significations. Thus in the above prayer, yi 
means to take away, to deliver ; it is also used to mean to make, 
to add to, with a difference of sound perceptible only by a native 
ear. A simple radical like tv becomes as perplexing as the 
different coloiirs of butterflies, pronounced or rather intoned in 
different ways, incapable of being reproduced in orthogi’aphy, in 
order to mean such opposite ideas as 

tu = to pull out. 

til = to put or place. 

tii ~ to overtake (as cn a journey). 

tu — to transgress or cross a boundary. 

ta = to die of small pox. 

tit — to bake, which reduplicated. 

tutu = to roast. 

excluding from this list such sounds so similar as 

tuu- = to boast. 

tuu- = to fling or to shoot. 

Without pressing this point further, it will be sufficient to give 
a list of more difficult native words taken at random. 

hii mobor — to have mercy. 

nbiixt = life. 

ahyedzi = commandment, from hye-dzi = to put on (appoint) a 
thing. 

anhu'ia = sand. 

Aicotchi — 8. 

nhinrqmha = a whistling sound, honi lariro = to sip. 

Ehuu-ehyv: = carelessly (proiiably from ehuv = a pulf of wind. 
avfdiche = looking-glass (from vdie = to look). 

The language is further singularly rich in onnmatopceic 
sounds, and in re-duplicated or triplicated simple words lo 
express whether as adverbs, nouns, or verbs, intensification 
of meaning. Thus the sound furnnSi expresses the idea, to 
sneeze, oird denotes a cough, via translates to creep, and “ he 
went on creeping" is oaicTaicia. Hnrohurb is the word for 
lungs, imitating the act of breathing, coming from a word 
livrb, to hoot, or to do something quickly. Derivatives from 
this root all preserve shades of the primitive signification, 
hvrbhiirti, meaning at random orinheaps, f»Trda//?D-d/i, furiouslv 
(like a burning fire), and ehunihvnf, the act of jumping, whilst 
a compound hvrvtututu, means the raging of the sea. With the 
exception of the word for dog’s bark, hun, the words expressive 



136 


E. M. CoxxoLLY. — Socitd lift' in Fanti-lanJ. 


of the notes of animals are employed for human sounds, thus 
hom’, denotes the roar of a leopard, or of a man, su, the cry of a 
cat or of a child. There are not to my knowledge any special 
ATords to denote the sounds of parrots or monkeys, though l)oth 
abound in the Fanti forests, and a native would speak only of 
ml fnr-luFi, monkey-talk, or e-iciriic-kuM, parrot-talk. 

Herhqjlkattons .- — If these rvords are reduplicated, the mean- 
ing is intensified as in most primitive languages, similar to the 
repetitions of adjectives by country people, and to great-great in 
the word great-great-grandfather. Thus ; 


JTdm 

Ki'itd-Ki't/O. 

&ikrt 

Sak'Ci-Sah'i 

Sdiitsiw 

Sa ntsi wSa n tsi>r 
Oydia' 


— talk. 

= excessive talk. 

= confused. 

= in frightful confusion. 
= to walk. 

= to keep on walking. 

= to moan. 


(J yamgyii.mgijani — to keep on moaning. 


Xearly every verb is capable of reduplication and triplification. 
Gmmrno.r. — In the scanty grammar of this language, a 
philologist will perhaps be ready to recognise the e.xistence only 
of nouns and veibs, with the addition perhaps of a few adjec- 
tives, denoting colour or primitive qualities. The adverbs are 
simply forms of nouns, and tenses of verbs go to form preposi- 
tions which, liaving not yet quite abandoned their verbal charac- 
teristics, nndergo changes with nominative cases. Interjections, 
of course, c.xist, such as rlei, alas, tihqxi, indeed, and pronouns, 
which, e.xcept for emphasis, are never used apart from verbs or 
so-called prepositions. Tliere is no article, but a vowel sound 
gener.dly similar to the jiredoininant vcwel .sound of the noun, 
occasionally, j.rccedes, when the noun staiuls finst or is promi- 
nently inaikod out. In this manner we can explain, O-sP.ho, 
leopard ; u-dan, house; a market, or Cape Coast Castle. 

dtoirns . — There are no ca.ses for nouns, such as may he under- 
stood by special forms, the genitive or possessive being simply 
conijioscd of two iiouiis joined by a pronoun, or pronominal 
adjective, thus my father’s garden becomes, riicgjia nu tun', 
my lather, his garden, just as was written ttvo centuries ago by 
mistaken pedants, who imagined the ending of the Saxon 
genitive ’s was a contraction fnr A/.s. Eut theie are very 
ehd.'orate plurals, a few of which it will suffice to mention. 
There are, generally speaking, three methods of forming the 
plural in Faiiti : 

Fiist, by prefixing n, or by clianging sucli a prefix as o, i, u, 
into n, which before is nsually m, as, 

0- ivnmpij, man becomes nnijimpa 

1- hiia, tishing net „ mhwx. 



E. M. Cox>v'OLLY. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


137 


ehua, 

ahua^ 

ojie, 

afeniy 

cha^ 

Pampam, 


tobacco pipe 

becomes mbiia. 

animal 


mbua. 

a comb 

J5 

mfi. 

home 


efien. 

a leopard 


mfem. 

child. 


mba. 

crown of the head. 


mpampam. 


Sucli words are generally radicals. 

Secondly. In the case of words, mainly compounds, ending 
in iijii and fu, the termination nyi becomes fu {fu undergoing 
no change), and the prefi.xes are changed from open or long 
vowels to close or short ones, as — 


ohihinyi, a blackman, 

obayifu, a wizard, 

of'trinyi, a fisherman, 

opimyinsivyi, an extortioner, 
Asi'iHtinyi, an Ashanti, 
A/fanUiiiyi, a Fanti-man, 

Opdayin, a chief. 


becomes ebibifv. 

„ aUlyifu. 

,, ijfarifu. 

„ apimpiiuinfa. 

„ Asaatcfu. 

,, Alfantsefu. 

„ mpdnyinfu. 


Thirdly, names of relations form the plural by adding num, 
or hiu, generally contracted into m, as: — 


egyn, fatlier, becomes egynnvm, egyi'un. 
e-uu, mother, ,, eiiamnn, enum. 


T'crb-s . — The tenses of verbs are very simple, consisting of 
present, past, and future, as : — 

mvdo, I love, present. 

iMuJo, I loved, no change for singular or plural. 
muk'odo, I shall, future. 


There is also a progressive pre.sent as from ha, to come ; 
'inirila. I am coming. This verb ha, forms also its future 
regnlaily with to, to come, not vith hi, to go ; thus mihcha, nut 
‘iiiikfla. There is also a preteiite formed by prefixing a vowel 
sound to the verb, thus : — 


Ordinary past, obCia, he came. 

Preteiite Uef. oftbn, he has come. 

Tltere are no second perfect.s or futures, probably because 
computations of time are burdensome to the negro, in whose 
country lime is “no object.” 

Adverbs there are such as ialdsold, in heaps, him, quiet, or 
quietly ; and mention may now be made of prepositions used 
as adverbs, which were originally nouns. Da, on or u[)on is 
merely the top ; ico paii da, on the table, is merely, bv the 
table, the top. Dadzi or dose, is another, denoting ground and 
hence rest in a place, as nkdropon dusi\ the eagles’ rest. Pre- 
l>ositiun.s like Ji and fr (meaning from, i.c., motion from), are 
still ill the process of degradation from verlial authority as ; — 



138 


E. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


Na hre enynasafn Ji htiki hd Yerusahm. 

“ And lo, wise men from the east came to Jerusalem.” 

Fi here is regarded as governing huka, east, but cannot be used 
alone. 

One ought not to forget to remark that tliere is no passive 
voice in Fanti, the third person plural being employed instead, 
as Jesus was born, 

iroicn Yesn vo Bethlehem. 

“■ They brought forth Jesus.” 

Tlie negative is denoted by the use of the nasal sound n, as 
iiio'iixbai, I did not come ; mv.voho, tlie present progressive, I am 
going, but minyinlo, I am not going. It is interesting to com- 
pare the employment of the negative in interrogative and answer 
with that of classical languages in sucli phra.ses as, inyinkol 
Are you not going ? Fycn:, yes, i.c., 1 am not goiay, a negative 
answer. Mvrvko, 1 am going, is the .simple affirmative answer. 

Adjectives are fairly plentiful in the language, and are used 
as adverbs and are most frequently reduplicated to express 
diminution or excess, as lit-ii, lifsi, IJtsi, very small ; kasi 
kesikcsi, very large. Like nouns they form plurals, generally by 
the prefix «. 

Colour sense . — But to express differences in colour the words 
are very few, and the colour sense of the Fantis seems 
remarkably deficient : — 

Black is, tuatnui. 

Blue, hlhiri. the same word as that for black man, for to the negroes 
their own colour is blue. 

Black country, Ebihirim. 

Negro language, Bihikdia. 

Native medicine, Ehihidvr. 

Bed, miinhi, or D, not an usual word. 

White, 

Green and vellow are seldom distinguished bv an untutored 
negro and the latter is moreover often confounded with red. 
Iherc is practically no word for yellow, but mhcUrluin is used to 
translate green, being the proper word for “ bile,” a j)liysiological 
constituent too common in a malarious country like the Gold 
Coast. 

Kanie for irhifc inaa . — It is interesting to observe that tire 
name for white man is unconnected with any idea of colour and is 
Fn roiviji, a compound of the usual ending, nyi and Ijdr'o, a word 
which does not -itaiid alone, but which enters into many words, 
all referring to Kunjpean matters. I have not been able to 
discover the meaning of the root, for the derivation of Ahdrrktjir, 
Lngland or Lurope, from Abdrekyir, i.e., behind Abiira, cannot 
be defended and is solely due to the similarity of tlie words. It 
may be from hnrh or huroburb, pure, genuine, or have some 



E. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-layid. 


139 


reference to huro, an ancient word for corn, said to have been 
introduced by the Portuguese. Buroba is a grain of corn. As 
instances of the use of this root in compounds, the following 
may be cited ; — 

ahurdha — a mulatto. 

ehurghan = a corn-cob. 

burojir — papaw (i.e., from white man). 

hurofu — English language. 

hurofu-huma = English thread. 

burOfu-nsa =; invoice price, lit. white man's hand. 

burokyetc = big hat. 

abitrbnuina = jiigeon, white man’s bird. 

Burhnya ~ Christmas. 

In fact almost any article brought from Europe may be 
designated by the use of the prefix, hard or hurofu. 

Derivatives and Compounds. — From the different Fanti words 
already used, it is abundantly clear that derivatives and 
compounds are easily formed. Nearly every single root-word 
may be taken and, like a German radical, brought through a 
whole gamut of derivatives. Or it may be combined with other 
words to form more comple.x meanings. E.xcept in the case of 
compounds, where two or more words are brought together 
unchanged and where an ending is then given to the new word, 
the new complicated words are the result of idiom and are in 
reality gerundial phrases. Thus : — 

o-sofu i.s priest, pcuii/i'?!, chief. 
osofu-panyin, high priest, pi. asofu-mpaiiyhi. 

In such a case both words are distinct and change for the 
plural in the compound. 

2. In another way the two words are blended together to 
form a new one and have a new ending, aheyi, canoe ; tua, the 
end ; oJicntunyi, helmsman, plural, nhentufu. 

3. Of a different kind are words like iisolwe, temptation ; 
bondodzi, leisure work; alanyujU, breathing; nliunujjje, repose; 
ahiipe, love of dress ; which are formed of two verbs or of a verlt 
and a noun, and which readily return to a separable state. Oso/i 
hive, he tempted or tested him; odzi bondo, he does leisure 
work; orugu ahum, ho is breathing; origye ahum.iio is taking 
rest ; ope nu hu, he is fond of dress, lit. of his person. This last 
peculiarity makes Eanti difficult for Europeans to learn, and 
those who succeed best, learn the language by acquiring a 
knowledge of idioms and sentences, not of single words. 

Use of Concrete for Abstract. — There is still, however, a more 
serious difficulty, the use of the concrete and the objective for 
the abstract and subjective. It is probable that in the begin- 
ning, when among all primitive peoples, words for hunger, 
thirst, cheerfulness, pride, anger, and similar conditions arose. 



140 


E. M. CoxyOLLY. — Social life in Funti-land. 


tlie words had a reference to the particular part of the body 
affected by the feeling, of which some inward sensation was 
experienced or outward manifestation given. In Fauti at this 
day the original words have not yet lost their meanings, which 
are most readily grasped when we turn a crank on our minds 
and wrench them back to the days of cliildhood again. 

I entreat you, becomes mipaic' Icyev, I take off the hat to you. 

He has ill-will towards me, oenyunt ininagi, he casts his eye loftily at 
me. 

Ehnfin': i.s auger, anil nu hu efinc, he is anaiy, but it is quite literal iu 
Faiiti and means “ his breast swells." 

0>J dll’ dtv: de, means I am glad, but literally it makes sweetness for me. 


The 

• Kuhh 

■rrals . — The numerals 

up to 20 

are as follows : — 

1 . 

Eklir. 

! 

8 . 

A irotchu'i. 

2 

Ehieii. 

1 

9 . 

Akn'ia. 

3 . 

Ebin.if 

>. \ 

10. 

Idu. 

4 . 

A'/icin^ 

hanan. 

11. 

Tdu-hittlcu. 

5 . 

Enurn. 


12. 

Da-ebien, and so on. 

6 . 

Eim. 


20. 

Ediionv. 

t . 

Esoii. 





A common way of counting after 20 is to say Edvonu-idji , 
2U, 10, and on arrivini; at 40, to say two score, but native.s who 
come in contact with Europeans, quickly find the advantage of 
using a less complex method. Anan, 4, is the same word as 
(Hinn, the foot, another form of which is annnsa, and enum, .5, i.s 
t!ie same as the word for mouth. Fbidsa, 3, might come from 
fhiin, 2, and nsa, tlie hand, to make three, and idu, 10, is pro- 
bably little more tlian dii “the top.” 

Xumes of persons. — Every Eanti ought to have two names, one 
taken from the day of the week on which he was horn and the 
other from some personal characteristic of his own, mothers, 
father's, or family. The days of the week with the names for 
males and females are as follows 




Male. 

1 Female, 

Sunday 

Eicesido 

.. Ktce-ii 

.... En\ Al'osuo. 

Monday 

hhcudii 

.. Kngo.... 

.... Adv.rt. 

Tuesday 

ihinada 

... Kobina 

.... Abinaha, Araha. 

etlnesdav 

n ukura 

.. Kicekii 

.... Ek'tia- 

Thursday .... 

YadAX.... 

Kii'a .... 

.... Aho. 

Friday 

Ifirn .... 

.... Kofi, ... 

.... Efart. 

Saturday .... 

Miminda 

.... Kinumna 

.... Amha. 


Names such as Kurd Ata, Kursi, the twin; Knyo Aiom, 
Kuijo the fourth son; Kofi Suronyi, Kofi from a white man; 



E. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-lmul. 


141 


are very common and exemplify the ordinary method of uomen- 
nlature. But the love of parable which is strong in the Fanti 
leads him. to give names, dedicatory as it were to some Fetish, 
to slaves and waifs and kidnapped children. Among Slave 
children names signifying the gift of God, His foot walks 
straight, He brought me luck, from the hand of God, are the rule, 
and it would be considered of had augury for them to eliange. 

Xaincs of Places . — The same love of parable is the cau.se of 
many almost inexplicable names to he encountered everywhere. 
During one journey I came upon two single huts, surrounded by 
a stout fence, but kept very clean and orderly, in the midst of 
the forest and four or five Iiours from the nearest habitation. It 
was called Oarnpe Kiirdra’, that is, he likes not a coimtiy, a 
multitude, and was the name given by the owner of the lunises 
who had fled from his father and who here with his brother and 
their wives tried to “ subdue the earth and his spirit.” Freely 
translated, Oarnpe Kurom would become “The Hermitage.” 
Local characteristics, derived from trees, vicinity of rivers, or 
hills, or some accident to the first settlers, account for many 
names. Bessachi, is under the cola-nut trees, Bese, adzi or 
dadzi, below or the ground. I’rusu is simply by the Fra. 
Appemdu, on the Appem, Do-iikicanta, well at the cross roads. 
Otochemdu on the Oto hem. Worth mentioning here is the name 
of a small plant like the Forget-me-not, with pale bluish flowers 
in capitella, which grows very quickly and spreads, and which 
is therefore called Tutic muroko kuhweepv., i.c., “ run, I am going 
to see the sea.” 

Poetry and Polk Lore. — It is difficult to arrive, even after 
lengthened investigation, at any success in trying to discover 
the materials of poetry and folk-lore which exist among such a 
people, so suspicious and so vain-gloi ious. If poetry or verse 
exists, it is kept secret for Fetish purposes, and therefore not to 
be disclosed, and the natives are shy to an extraordinary degree 
in relating one of their own tales before a European, perhaps 
because every detail is nicely exact, and the language, “ painful 
and free ” like the language of some of the Arabian Xights. 
One of the tales has for subject the faithle.ssness of the wife of 
Kweku Anansi, or Kweku Spider, who, on his return from 
hunting one day, found his door barred and heard a noise 
inside. On forcing open the window with his gun,^ Kweku 
discovered his deceitful wife and her paramour. A pedarer 
ensues, during wliich the lover manages to escape, and at tlie 
end of which Kweku is compelled to forego any demand for 


^ The mention of the ^’in indieates a modern inter^>olAtion. Anansi is aUo a 
■word for spider amongst West Indian negroes. 



142 


E. M. Connolly. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


compensation because he saiu nothing. It i.s very popular 
amongst all carriers and hammocknien, and consists of a long 
recitative broken by refrains, “ Oh, Anansi, oh Anansi, you are 
being tricked, or your wife’s too much for you,” or some such 
piece of sparkling wit. 

After many burials a troop of mourners following the coffin 
will sing a song of quite other pattern. It is lit. translated, 

“ Bear him along, 

He is only a poor body now, 

Bear him along. 

Give pity to the poor body, 

Bear him along.” 

And when a chief or a great man dies, at the custom, held 
in his honour, bis virtues are at first chanted until the influence 
of rum suggests pleasanter topics. But in such songs there is 
neither metre, rhyme, nor even attempt at rhythm ; the sole 
object of the minstrel seems to be to get as many words as 
possible into a single breath, to the accompaniment of a very 
monotonous air, and with the clangor of the equally monotonous 
tom-toms. 

Daily Customs of a Fa.nti toien. — It is, however, when the 
sound of these tom-toms assaults the air, that a sojourn in a 
native town becomes most interesting. Then, whether the 
custom be held for the marriage of a chief, or for the Yam Feast, 
or for some -s-ague anniversary, if one walks through the town, 
or leans over palisades, or looks into houses, all Fanti life in its 
happiness and misery, labour and indolence, becomes visible ; the 
chief, sitting on perhaps a gold-mounted hardwood stool, with 
massive gold ornaments on his fingers, and ai'oundhis neck, and 
with a flowing robe of finest native material, wdiich he lowers 
from his shoulder as a sign of salute and respect as you approach ; 
the headwife attending to the cooking, generally fat and good- 
humoured-looking ; the comely damsel, with hair brought to a 
point on the crown of her head, rustling in European silk or 
IManchester cotton, thrown loosely, yet gracefully, around her, 
perhaps trying to attract admiration ; the ycung girl who has 
suddenly bloomed from a child into a maiden, and who now 
walks through the streets, attired in her best raiment, and 
decked with the costliest ornaments of her family, a retinue of 
children following ; the weaver, active at his narrow loom ; the 
mat-maker peeling the thin slices of the reed-palm, or odohe, to 
dry in the .sun : the palm oil workers skimming off the impurities 
|rom the red oil, as it melts in a va.st cauldron : the lively market, 
where under a blazing sun, plantain.s, bananas, yams, sweet 
potatoe.s, fish, goats, ground-nuts, and all kinds of peppers are 
exchanged for .soajrs, scents, hair-washes, TJomade, salt-fish, tinned 



E. M. CONXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


143 


beef, and all kinds of hardware, women, with children on their 
backs, crying, at the tops of their voices, as they make their 
bargains ; the orresting-shed at the entry of the town, 

for travellers and carriers, who may be seen there, with loads 
deposited from weary heads and shoulders, palm-kernel-nut bags, 
or palm oil in solid lumps, or rubber like an elephant’s hide, 
whilst the weary guardians of the burdens rest for a time, and 
devour greedily the dried fish and kenki, which they find so 
palatable and supporting. It is a picture of human life, with 
the substratum common to all existence, and the superficial 
variations due to climate, country, race, and perhaps individual 
idiosyncrasies. 

Katice Marriuge . — There are now no initiatory ceremonies 
performed in the Fanti country in the case of girls, when they 
become marriageable. But up to Xovember, 1892, ceremonies 
were practised in the greatest secrecy amongst a people called 
Krobo, who inhabited a small district east of Fanti-land, and 
where crime was committed to such an extent, generally murder 
of strangers, that an expedition marched into the district and 
drove all the people from Krobo-hill, the seat of the ceremonies. 
Three Krobo Fetish priests were afterwards hanged for murder 
on the hill pubhcly, and I am inclined to think there is now an 
end of these practices. 

During the first menstruation in Fanti-land the young girl is 
kept confined to her house for about a week, then given water 
by her mother or aunt to wash. Tlris done, she partakes of 
a hearty meal, ha\'ing been obliged to fast on light “ pap ” 
during most of the week. On the following day, she puts on 
a new cminarnadzi, i.e., a new string of beads (which everv 
native woman wears day and night) just above the hips around 
the loins, a new amointsi, that is a piece of cotton stuff going 
from the centre of the assinamadzi in front between the thighs 
to the centre of it behind, where it is tied. A new “ cloth,” 
as it is called, is given to her, i.e., a piece of cotton stuff which 
she winds around her hips and legs like a petticoat, a new 
“cover-slut,” or light silk chemise, and a piece of clotli to 
wear as a shawl. Her hair is arranged in a most elaborate 
fashion, brushed up at the sides, and folded back like a fringe, 
covered with gold ornaments ; her neck is loaded with gold 
chains, and her fingers covered with rings. Escorted by a troop 
of girls of very tender ages, like nymphs following the huntress- 
goddess Artemis, she walks through the town, visits die friends 
of her family, receives their good wishes, perhaps a present as 
a handsel from them, and is on view for some days following. 
Unfortunately, her fate is not in her own hands. Bom as 
she is to be regarded the negro’s chattel, supporter, or geiiitrix 



144 


If. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-laml. 


of offspring, she suffers the cruel destiny of being sold regardless 
of aflection or antipathy. But even in the uegress, oppressed 
bv the callous contempt of generations, there are feelings which 
demand reciprocation, and which break the bonds of convention 
to attain to some realisation of sympathy and affection. 

The essential parts of the marriage contract are not love 
passages, but the payment of the purchase-money. When a 
man has made the possession of such a girl as that just des- 
cribed his heart’s desire, he has, like every suitor, to abide by 
certain conditions and to wait. When the new woman shall 
have ac(piired power in Fanti-land, she may probably insist on 
the addition of a sanitary condition likely to prove inconvenient 
for many a lover. 

1. The first condition is the payment of “ Head Bum,” 
varying from lO-s. to £2, which is supplied by the “ bearer,” who 
goes alone or with tlie suitor to beg the girl’s hand. The 
rum is intended to be refreshment for the future bride’s family 
whilst the proposal is under consideration. 

2. An amount, varying from 3-5. to Os. Off., has to be paid for 
knocking at the door of the father of the girl, and probably 
marks the acceptance of the proposal, and the reception of the 
future husband into the girl's family. 

3. A dowry must be paid to the parents or proper guardians 
of the girl, to compensate them for the loss of her services. 
The amount varies from £3 12.s. to £7 d-s., that is, one or two 
ounces of gold, to £10 or £12 in the case of an educated girl, 
and even £20 in the case of a mulatto. 

The payment of the dowry is always regarded in native 
courts and in Engli.sh courts now as the indispensable part of 
the native marriage contract, and after it, the girl, Avith certain 
reservations, becomes the property of her husband. 

4. Tlie bridegroom is obliged to make presents of cloths, 
Manchester stuffs, and silks to the bride, after which nothing 
more is to be e.xpected of him. 

On the evening of the day on Avhich the contract has thus 
been made, it is usual to see a procession of servants taking the 
girl’s bo.xes, clothes, pots and worldly goods from her mother’s 
house to her husband’s, and soon after to see the bride herself 
“ led ” by her mother, as it is technically termed, or by her 
most intimate friend, and followed by other female fi lends, to 
the husband’s house, where stimulants are provided for the 
party. As this all takes places in the tropics, before the sun 
has gone below the horizon, a necessity has never been felt for 
hymeneal torches, and they accordingly form no picturesque 
part of a very materialistic programme. Centuries must pass 
before a native poet can sing of romantic lovers and of the 





E. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in FantA-land. 145 

marriage night in the strain of the fervid concluding stanzas of 
Sir John Suclding’s “Ballad on a Wedding.” 

Divorce. — It is not surprising that under such a system there 
are numerous divorces, for the bond is easily severed and there 
is no social ostracism attaching to preferring a lover to a 
husband. After the woman has shown her repugnance to her 
husband by flight with another, or refusal to live with him, he 
has only to announce the fact to her family, stating that he has 
divorced her. He usually claims back ail his head rum and 
dowry, which, according to native law, he is entitled to receive, 
not considering the length of time he may have had the use of 
the woman. The husband has also the power to divorce, 
without assigning any reason, but in a case of this kind, he has 
not justice on his side in demanding back the head rum and 
do^Try. 

Folugnmy. — Polj’gamy is practised very generally, chiefs 
having four, five, or six wives, and fanners and small traders 
two wives, but the same publicity is not given to the custom 
now, as it has been discountenanced by the Government, much 
to the injury of the women, as they imagine. Every wife of a 
polygamist was a free woman, became a member of her 
husband’s family, had a protector during his life, and was 
provided for after his death. The case is a little different now. 
The second wife is little better than a slave kept as a con- 
cubine, for she has to do most of the drudgery, and to cook her 
husband’s food, or even procure it for him. This is particu- 
larly true in the case where a negro has one wife, married in 
church,” and the other “ married in native fashion.’’ 

Children of Polygamists . — Wherever children exist, the care 
of them is left to the mothers exclusively, a habit whicdi may 
explain the intensity of all'ection felt generally byEantis for the 
mother, whilst the father is hardly known or disregarded. Tlie 
practice of living in separate houses may also conduce to tliis 
end, as well as the fact that all over Equatorial Africa the 
wives never eat with their husbands, but always with the 
children. This custom of separate eating is not to be ascribed 
to Mohammedan influence, for it exists where ilohaminedanisin 
has never penetrated, and where heathenism is in full sway. 

Succession to property. — Polygamy and the curious anomaly 
of a man’s having two wives, married according to different 
forms, but both legal, ore not without effect on succession to 
property. The' goods of a man married according to European 
ceremony may be disposed of by will in any way the testator 
chooses, but in default of a will in such a case, the eldest son 
receives all. There being no son, the property goes to the 
daughter or daughters, and, if there are no daughters, to the 

VOL. XXVI. L 



146 


i;. M. CoN'N'iiLLY . — Social U/l lit Faiifi-l'. ,i(l_ 


wife. But under native Fanti law, and in ca-es nf persons 
married according to native ceremonies, a more ancient and 
peculiar code prevails. 

Xatiir Sj/sti iii . — The rightful heir in native law is the eldest 
nephew, ('.-...the eldest si ster’.s eldest son, who i.ivt/ r i' ill 1/ succeeds. 
to all the property and position of his uncle, iucludiiig wives, 
children, slaves, if there he any, and who thus liecoines liable for 
the debts of the deceased. In default of .such an heir, the princi- 
pal relatives of the deceased select one of tlieir mimber to succeed, 
and the man so selected becomes the legal heir, just as if he had 
been the nejihew. (dccasionallv another metliod is resorted to in 
order to appease ditferences which may arise ; a division of all 
the property is made, generally between two, hardly ever 
between more than three. And it is iiotewoithy that the man 
to whom are assigned the personal effects, chattels and mov- 
able stock of the deceased, receives the wive.-j also I’or his share. 

Females may succeed to property, but principally when the 
acquisition of property by them is merely the result of succession 
to the stool of a cliief, and ipso facto to the land which is 
attached to the stoi.d. At the present time a queen reigns 
in Daboasi, the chief town of an important district on the 
Lower Pra, has large tracts of mahogany-hearing land under 
her at least nominal ownership, and exercises power through 
tiie mouth of her elders and lingui.st. On a visit, which" I 
paid her nearly a year ago. in connection v ith disputes arising 
from concessions which she had given to timber speculators, I 
found the queen dressed rather poorly, though she is not at all 
in an indigent condition, and sitting outside the entrance of a 
small hovel, at the rear of her compound. The reason of her 
apparent destitution and abandonment for a time of her proper 
dwelling was the occurrence of the menses, during which a 
Fanti woman is regarded as unclean, and obliged to live apart 
from her husliand. 

Tea a re. of Lamt. — The system of land tenure is a thorn v 
subject, and has boon tor .some time under ( loveriimcnt inquiry. 
In all the Fanti i.i)untry the source of ownership of land is 
derived from the posse.ssion of the chief’s stool, and not even 
the ehiet can alienate the land from the stool. Disputes about 
boundaries, right.-> of way, hereditary rights of occupation in 
regard to land have been a kind of ab-orljing pursuit to the 
litigious Fanti. and a lertile source of revenue to native lawyers, 
whose language and treatment ot their clients are faithful copies 
of their prototypes in “ Les Plaideur.s.’ fine fact is deserving of 
attention. In the course of tlii.s litigatieiii, it h.as been more 
than once argued fm behalf of a defendant prosecuted ft.)r trespass 
or sougdit to he restrained from cultivation, that there are two 



i;. M. CoxxoLLY. — Svcial life in Funti-h' nd. 147 

chiefs, one lo rule over the people and the other to liold 
authority over the land. But in consequence of the testimony 
of kings and native experts, it has been decided in the English 
Supreme Court that, according to native custom, there can be 
only one chief, who is at the same time possessor of the stool 
and holder as trustee for his tribe of the land. 

When land becomes built upon, it is regarded as the personal 
property of the owner of the house on his making a small present 
to the chief, generally rum or gin. But arable, mining, forest 
and what may i)e called waste lands near the settlements of a 
tribe are all considereil as in the chief’s hands, and by him 
portioned out to the several familie.s, who sub-divide plots and 
make their own boundaries. All are under obligation to con- 
tribute something, usually very vaguely defined, either in money, 
gold dust, kind, or tlasks of rum as recognition of chieftaincy, to 
the chief, who has also the right to call for special contributions 
in case of a Journey, a death, or to defray legal expenses. 

Xothing i". more commonly vi.sible in the bush, or on the 
sea-coast now, as in the days of Hanno, the Carthaginian 
traveller, who first remarked them, than cloud.s of smoke, the 
indications of the forest tires tliat prepare the giound for culti- 
vation. The Fanti farmer, except in very settled district^, 
where owing to the British protectorate ami consequent progress 
and peace, popidation begins to increase, is not a “ permanent 
cultivator. Three or at most five years will cover the period 
during which land is eontimiously cultivated, or the soil broken 
with the hoe. A ]>eriod usually reckoned at fifteen years is 
supposed to elapse before the bush, which soon covers the fallow 
land, is destroyed in tire, and gives pi ice anew to industry. 

When the crackling of the bnsli-fires no longer startle the 
ear, nor wreaths of smoke meet the eye, and when the native 
has finished his light turning of the soil with his hoe, and 
scattered the seed, pruned liis jdantain groves and trimmed his 
palm trees, the early rains are at liand and .soon burst over the 
torrid soil. After a few wcek.s’ rain, the dark green of the bu=ii 
assumes a brighter liue, pluntation.s of corn, and ca^sada, and 
grouiid-nut.s spiring up as if by magic, the plantains shake, their 
opening bunches in the breeze, and the palm nuts begin to 
appear. But during tliis period tlie husbandman does little but 
consume the store of the previous .season. 

Ci’0])s . — It is difficult to determine what crops or fruits aie 
indigenous to Fauti-land, for .some bear nanie.s obviously derived 
from the I’ortuguese, and, as mentioned before, the word for 
corn is connected with the root in the uord for white man. A 
■short list may he given here, commencing with words peculiarly 
native. 

L 2 



148 


E. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-lanJ. 


Oil palm-trep, 

Y’am, 

Grouml nuts, 

( 'in’D-iiLt tres, 
Lime-tree, 

Kola-tree, 

Corn, 

Cassrda or cassara, 
Banan i, 

Plantain, 

Papjjaw, 

Piiie-apple, 

C'oco-yaiu, 

Mango, 

Ouava, 

Sweet-sop or Sour- 
sop, or CustarJ- 
Apple, 


= Ahelvdt. 

= Och'i. 

= yirata or at's'. 

= Kiih^. 

~ iilctl f/iO. 

= Bese. 

= Bijrob'i. 

— Bciuh/jc. 

= Mpm'i. 

— Ohurf lzi or ahun'i hi. 
= B^'rojir, or huroiij.'-. 

= Ahvrube. 

= Kuho. (Portuguese ) 
= Mniirju. (Port.) 

= O'juaha. (Port.) 


= Aph-. 


Tiger-nuts, 


= A tad ’.re. 


The native food is neither rrclicrchc , nor varied for the reasons 
of the year. The coniinou dish is what is known as Baho oil 
chop and fnfu, the former Being a bowl of palm oil. produced 
by boiling fresldy ground palm nuts, a liquid in which a fowl or 
fi,sh is cooked and which is highly seasoned with native pepper. 
The/;(/(7 — the name simply meaning ichitc — is a mass of boiled 
yams or plant.iins pounded into a pasty consistency and generally 
found very filling. Ground-nut soup is substituted for the palm 
oil chop, l.)Oth of which are taken by Europeans, but the former 
of wliich ivhen well prepared, is appetizing and delicious. Kenki 
has been spoken of before, as pounded corn, and corn is also used, 
washed and mi.xed with hot water as a drink in the early morning. 
There are two principal meals in the day, at noon and after 
sunset, and this habit appears universal oi'Cr "Western Africa. 

-Vs a European walk.s througli a Eanti town, his nostrils may 
lie suddenly assailed by a smell of the most penetrating and 
intolerable nature ; it is the smell of a flavouring article, dear 
To the Faiiti, stml'-f.sh. By this name is known the shark, cut 
up in sections, and partially sun-dried, and generally in a con- 
<litiou of revolting putrefaction. Natives have often declared 
that, as they say, “it tastes too sweet, it passes everything in 
swe‘'tness,” Put I cannot speak from e.xperience. In a part of 
Fanti-land where I lived fur seven months, and where stink-fish 
abounded, and was a great article of commerce, and where also 
skin discMSfS and elephantiasis Arabum,or false-lepirosv flourished 
to an apipalling extent, I came to the conclusion that the handling 
and coiiMimplion of the putrefying shark contributed vastlv to 
produce the foul and deforming diseases everywhere visible. 

As the Fantis are daring and expert fishermen on the sea, 
tile}' are skilful canoe-builders in the interior, make verv good 



If. M. COXXOLLY. — Social life in Fanti-land. 


149 


mats, weave very good native cloths (Jeente F.), and are moder- 
ately industrious farmers. In the latter occupation the women 
do mo.st of tlie work, particularly in washing and pounding 
tlie palm nuts and kernels to render them fit for the market. 
Pottery of a simple kind is also paid attention to, hut the 
most honourahle occupation is that of goldsmitli, which is 
likewise hereditary. t)ne cannot refrain from surprise and 
admiration at the delicacy of filigree workmanshijt of which the 
Fanti is capable with the crudest of instrument.s. There are 
few native designs, the principal one being a sindte's head and 
coil, for the zodiac design on rings and chains, now so common, 
is derived from the Mohammedans. 

Bdkfxancl si/jKrsfitiuns . — But whether in the Fanti.s’ occupa- 
tions or artistic design.s or imitations it is difficult to penetrate 
the veil which hangs over the superstitions and beliefs con- 
nected with them. Xow that missionaries have invaded the 
domain of Fetishism, suspicion and vague fear of Government 
or of ridicule, to which Fantis are very sensitive, take away all 
success from an impiirer. About the nature of the soul little is 
believed or thought, and so the Fanti looks calmly and indiffer- 
ently to a future life, in which he has no fi.xed belief, but which 
displays for him no dismal outlook as a place of punishment. 
Food is often set at the grave of the recently deceased, a pitcher 
of water, a chair for a chief, and a special Feti.sli emblem for a 
Fetish priest, so that functions similar to those of the present 
life may be performed beyond the tomb. In travelling through 
the bush, one is certain to remark outside many towns and 
villages, a chiefs tomb, covered with a shed, with dead fowls, 
fresh eggs and water liv its side, and a chair on top of the 
mound. And in the fields one may notice, at boundary lines, 
slain fowls, buttles from which gin or rum had been poured into 
the soil, small wickerwork erections, enclosing a few bananas 
eggs, or tlask of giu, all to propitiate the Fetish of the region. 

Human vampire . — That even natives who have been educated 
iire still possessed by a belief in Fetishism, the following story 
of a human vampire will show. Whilst I was halting at a small 
town, a native official brought me Ids child, which he said had 
been healthy up to a short time before, but from which all health 
had departed in a single idght. Tlie child was indeed suffering 
from the extremity of marasmus. He further informed me 
that he discovered through a boy who was learning, as he said, 
to be a wizard, that a certain woman who ha 1 lately left the 
town, had by magic sucked away all the healthy blood of the 
young child in order to obtain fresh strengtli for her journev. 

imbued with belief in this explanation of his child’s 
illness was the official that he sent a special me.ssage to the 



150 


E. ;M. Connolly . — Social life in Fonti-lamf 


woman to restore liis child's hlood or that he would hring her 
before a chief's court for the offence of stealing it. It was 
impossible to discover anything from the youth who tir.«t 
propagated the story. 

Sfirits . — As every Fanti has his own Fetish or familiar spiiit, 
so is he considered to some extent in the fjower of this Fetish. 
This spirit is of a neutral character, beneficent if appeased, and 
mischievous it un})iopitiated, but on the whole more inclined to 
be of an evil disjiositicjn. The native ssvears by him in the 
court of justice, holding up the hand, invoking his name, and 
simply promising " Kana niihrae '' — to tell the truth — at times 
tasting- a little moco, or pounded native pepper, and drinking- 
water or sprinkling it on the ground A very common Fetish 
among- Faiitis is the ISushm Pra, or Fetish Pra, that is the river, 
as nienticned in the beginning, but names of ancestors are 
Commonly taken ns Fetish, of celebrated Fetish-groves, as Dente 
ill Ivrdtchi on the Volta. Tlie word for Fetish is husi'in, from 
ohn, stone, and -b/fin. to serve (or si'an, dark), which is also the 
woid for Moon. Im-iiini, with a change of accent, and a 
Fetish-priest is o-ln'iiaw-hira. i.e., slave or servant of the Fetish. 
The word is theief.ue connected with an external object such a.s 
a "tick, bone, or .■^tone : and at a town sunk in Fetish, called 
L'liaiiia, ipiite near the fort in which I lived, at the mouth of the 
Pra, tliere is a .small Fetish temple, circular and conical, built of 
wood and straw, in which three Fetish-stones, black, smooth, 
and round, were kept. Before these an invocation was frequently 
made when tishernieu were setting (Uit to sea to secure a pros- 
] serous catch. In cases of epidemics, such as .small-pox, which 
u[) to lately raged through Faiiti-laiid, out"ide every town, across 
the road lea\ iiig hut a small [lath at the sides, was erected a 
horizontal iiole on two uprights, and the space on the ground 
iietweeii littered vith eggs, plaiilain.s, yams, elead fowls, as 
ofi'eviiigB to the Fetish to ward off the disease. On one oe-casioii, 
during a tremendous thunderstoi-m, I took refuge in a small 
lnnelwitha "tieaiiier fiiaiting fiom the top. which was filled 
iii'ide with a mixture of diseiui)owelled slice]), goat", and jioultrv. 
A fetish ])i'i! -.t "lion njijieared, who iiiformed me this wa.s the 
house he used fa ton-telliiig anil civingadeice !iy examination 
01 eiitvoil", and liefoie 1 hdt a couple of women with sick 
chill] ten had eonie to him, and gone a'vav comfoittvl bv the 
hopeful wolds he ']).)ke. 

Maiiic . — .V eoinuioii and w idespread belief exist.s in the jinwer 
of witchcraft, and. as in Eiighiiid three ceiiluiie.s ago, this puwev 
is coiisideied to resiilc in old women or deformed men, or 
children S]ieeial!y indoctrinated hv such persons. A jieculiar 
facility for making tire when ami where he likes is a distin- 



K. M. Connolly . — Social life i/i I\niti~land. 


151 


giiishing characteristic of a wizard, and intelligent English- 
speaking Faatis have assured me that their own eves beheld 
unmistakable prouts of this magic in action. One night, a 
year ago, I went with a lire-making sorcerer into a plantain 
grove to witness an exhibition of this power, but as I refused to 
go farther away than twenty yards from him, whence everything 
was plainly visible, the entertainment was a “ fizzle,’" and nothing 
burned. 

Poieee of tulcinff oiray strength . — Far more serious, however, 
is the belief that Fetish priests, witches, and soieerers, have the 
power of inflicting bodily harm on their enemies or on others 
for lucre, by Ijurying objects in the ground to be trodden on or 
hanging them over the pathway, making at the same time an 
invocation. Such a ease coming from a wild pan of the •• bush 
between Takwa and Dixcove formed the subject of an investiga- 
tion. To relate it shortly, a certain Kwamiiia i)onko was at 
enmity with two friends named Kujo Atta and Kweku Dyeii, and 
to cake revenge on them applied to a Fetish i)riest named Kofi 
Paka, to inflict some injury on the two friends. At the int^uirv 
Kofi Paka, the Fetish priest, who apparently did not know that 
his conduct had brought him within the arm of the Criminal Code 
oil the Crold Coast, made a very free confessimi of his part of 
the matter, and seemed desirous to impress the natives with a 
consciousness of Ids skill. He, on payment of 2iSs., a present of 
rum and fowls, went with Kwandna Donko to a path near the 
town where Kujo Atta and Kwbku Dyeii lived, dug a hole in 
the pathway and laid therein a large red crab, with cowries tied 
to if, and sprinkled rum over it. Tlie invocation he made, 
which he re[)eated at tlieiuipdry, was ■* 0 crab-Focish, when Kujo 
Atta and Kweku i)yen walk ovor you, may you take life from 
them,” that is to say, power, .‘strength, liealth, or vitality. As 
soon as this beranie known, Kujo Atta ami Kwalkir Dveii dug 
up the crab-Fetish. and in their anger nearly took the” life out 
of Kwamiiia Donko and some of Ids friends. In their defence, 
the crafi-Ieti'h was produced in eoiut as ipdte sufficient pro- 
vocation for any assault. It i.' ivniarkablc that no violence 
was oflercd to the Ictisli prie>t. and he came as willinglv to 
give evideiico tci prove the malic.e of Kwandna Donko as he went 
to gratify that malice by “making Fetisli" against the others. 

L'jre-eJifj rmi. — Love-charms are still very much employed, 
ami are generally conijiosed of the juice ot limes, a woman’s 
bead, iMti\e aphiodisiacs, and a woman's .s[iecial small sji ame, 
which is worn like a pessary. These are all rubbed up 
together and afterwards .'meared over the hands. If the youth 
wdth hands so .smeared meets the maiden, or vice eersd, the 
etl'ect is .supposed to be erprally satisfactory. 



152 


Pi. M. Co:sxOLLY. — Suciul lift: in Fanti-laml. 


Parlncatioa . — After many customs, paitieiilarly on tlie part 
of the women, a purification is jwrforiiied, generally with water 
alone, or with watt^r ami limes. A most a.^tounding instance 
of this kind I witnessed not far troiii Chama on the very 
sea-coast. A young native who liad been seiiously ill fur a 
lengthened period, and who had even heen under my care at 
irregular intervals, died suddenly, not without a suspicion of 
poison in my mind. As I valked along the Ijeach the same 
evening with a negro, a native of Accra, of a totally difl'ereiit 
country, language, and traditions, we came unexpjcctedly upon a 
funeral party about twenty yard.s from the beach. I could see 
distinctly that the dead body was taken out of the coffin, had 
some rum poured into its mouth, was handled by many of the 
women, and then put hack into the coffin. It was cptickly let 
down into a grave — this v.'as some distance away from tiie 
town cemetery — and speedily covered up. All the hoards on 
which tlie coftin was carried and all the rum-bottles were broken; 
and with a shout all tlie women and men raced for the sea, 
threw themselves into it, rolled in the waters, rubbed them- 
selves, and returned naked to a spot where I could observe 
clean clothes had been left. The others were left in the water 
or on the sea shore. IMy native companion gave me to under- 
stand such a scene had never passed before his eyes, though he 
had seen many native funerals. 

Olservance of Fttish . — One may often meet women, known 
to be well off, or of good families, p.oorly clad, half-naked, 
with black daubs on the face and che.st, who will answer the 
question a.s to what is the matter by saying, '• I am doing my 
Fetish.” This consists of the uhservance of a fast for a few days 
in the year, abstinence from .sexual intercourse, or indeed from 
work, frequent invocation of the Fetish or familiar spirit, and 
a great hath at the end, putting on of clean or new garments 
and a hearty meal. Fetish in fact enters into every important 
act of a heathen Fanti’s life, though it is often difficult to 
discover the connection lietween the one and the other. At 
Elmina the Feti.sh is named Eiitrii, which i.s a corruption of 
bt. Anthony, the patron saint of the jilace in the time of the 
Portuguese. And it is said tliat when the T)utch captured 
Elmiiia in 1037, the natives broke into the church and took 
away the brass cross, which i.s still said to he preserved. The 
truth of that I have not been able to discover. The women also 
at Elmina in an old district are known os Santa ilaria, and 
when one of these dies, she is surrounded by lighted candles, as 
at a Poman Catholic funeral, though nearly all, if not all, of these 
women are heathens. 

In addition to all this, there is a belief in a Beneficent 



E. Etheridge, Jrx. — Notes on Australian Shields. 153 

Being, a Creator to ■whom, however, hut little homage is offered 
hy souls imprisoned in symholisiu, which has lost its iiieaniiig. 
God is Nijarni, from Nja, to get, to make, or N!)unhAp6n, pro- 
bably from Njuiiluin, rain, and great, and according to 
Fanti notions, takes the same interest in their actions that 
“ the happy gods ” did in the affairs of men according to Epi- 
curus. As distinct from a malign Fetish, the existence of a 
personal Devil, who is called Ahousam, the evil-worker, is 
generally credited, hut, tlmugh conceived as a spirit in human 
shape, is a vague and ill-defined personage, inactive on earth 
and usually resident in hell, known as ahuasaui-Kurdui , the 
Devil’s Country. Innocuous beliefs and interesting supersti- 
tions such as these mentioned above are likely to persist in 
spite of the spread of education, and fornpin'the fatal climate of 
West Africa, obstacles to progress not so difficult to surmount 
as the fever-bringing dews of the forest and plague-heaving 
mists of the swamps. 


Notes on Austr.\li.\.x Shields, morr particularli/ the Druxmuxg. 

By E. Etheridge, Jrx. (Curator of the Australian Museum. 

Sydney). 

[wiTa PI..\TES TI-TII.] 

Ay excellent series of figures of the Druniuung shield will be 
found in the late Mr. E. B. Smyth’s " Aborigines of Victoria,’'* 
exhibiting a variety of incised sculpture and ornament. In the 
following notes I purpose describing three shields of this type, 
differing from any figured by Mr. Smyth. The acutely roof- 
shaped .shield, known in We.stern Victoria under this name, is 
used, like the hMuhjn shield, to ward off blows in close combat, 
and is, so far as I know, an essentially south country weapon of 
defence. The front of the Drunmung is sharpdy anaular, the 
back sub-angular, and it is quadrangular in section. The centre 
of both the front and back is convex, becoming either straight 
top and bottom, or slightly concave along the front, and some- 
times along the back also, attenuating towards lioth ends, and, 
therefore, not unlike a .string bow. The hand-hole is excavated 
out of the hinder faces by counter-sinking. It is usually, 
although not always, ornamented only on the two angular 
halves of the front. 

On the Murray Elver, towards its source, and in other parts 
of Few South Wales, this shield is known as the Tnirara ng. 

For the loan of the Druamung represented by Fig. 1, I am 


^ “Aborigines of Victoria,” 1S78, I, p. 331, f. 126-129. 



154 


li. Etiieridgk, Jl'X . — Notes on 


indebted to Mr. X. Hardy, of the “Sydney Mail.” In form and 
style of ornament it is generally similar to the beautiful types 
figured by Smyth. The angular front is similarly curved, and 
the apices of the shield are unsculptured, but unlike any of the 
illustrations referred to, similar spaces are left on the angular 
halves of the front, opposite, and of equal length, to the hand- 
hole, but narrowing to the sharp front edge. The remainder of 
the front surface on each side is incised in a series of small 
rhombs within I'homb.s. and triangles within triangles. One of 
Smyth’s figures* has a similar, although larger stj le of ornamen- 
tation, but instead of the uniucised space opposite the hand-hole, 
carries a simple incised bar. The front angular edge is sharp, 
the hinder edge I'ounded oft’. 

Tire length of this weapon is 2 feet 7 inches ; the breadth, 
Tj inches ; the thickness through the weapon, If inches ; and 
the weight, 1 pound 14 ounces. The precise locality is unknown. 

An opportunity is now afforded of showing the extension of 
the DruiuinnKj, or rather a modification of it, into East-central 
New South 4Vales, through the courtesy of Messrs. Angus and 
Eobertsoii, publishers, of this city, M'ho have permitted me 
to make use of the original of Fig. 2, once a portion of the 
warlike outfit of “King Billy,” of 'Wellington, a well known 
aborigine in former days. 

As I have previou.sly pointed out, the true Lninmung of 
"Western Victoria is decidedly (piadrangular in section, roof- 
shaped front and back, and with prominent lateral angles. 
The curvature and position of the hand-hole of the present 
shield (Fig. 2), accords with the Brunmung type, but the 
sides are quite fiat, and the section would be in consecpence 
simply a long oval. The front edge is also truncated, but the 
hinder i.s .still rounded. In the incised sculpture we again see 
a marked departure from that of the Ijefore-mentiuned type, in 
tliat the incised lines are not confined to the front face.s, but 
extend also on to tlie back, and in consequence of the want of 
angularity along the sides of the shield, the ornamentation 
should lie more properly descrilied as lateral. The incised 
lines form four detached hour-gla;>s shaped figures, line within 
line, two above, and two below the hand-hole on each face ; 
conjoin the respective halves on the two faces, and eight 
roughly rhomboidal figures would result. The apices and 
interspaces are smooth. 

Although I have included this shield under the Bn/ niiiung 
f}l’e, the dujiarture it exhibits Irom the latter in several impor- 
tant particulars, almost induces me to consider it distinct, but 
the form, apart from the lateral angulation, is so manifestly that 
' “ Aborigines of Virtoria,” 1878, I, p. 331, t. 1 ^ 7 . 







Akitraliun Shields, more purticvlarli/ the Dnnimiuig. 155 

of the weapon in i.piestioii, that it will be perhaps better to retain 
it under this name. 

The shield is 2 feet 10 inches long; 4^ inches across in the 
widest part ; 1^ inches in thickue.ss ; and weighs 1 pound 10 
ounces. 

The third Drviiniiing (Fig. 3) is again from the collection of 
Mr. X. Hardy, and is another peculiar and marked departure 
from the urdinarv type, although e-\:hibifing the correct outline 
and curvature. In the first place it is heptagonal in section, 
instead of quadrangular, and .secondly, the arched front, instead 
of lieing simply roof-shaped, is truncated, producing a narrow 
face tliat is slightly concave transversely; thus the fiont of the 
shield possesses three faces instead of two. The back is divided 
on each side longitudinally by a ridge, so producing two faces in 
rhe place of one. All the faces are slightly concave transversely. 
The only incised portions are the two anterior corresponding 
front faces, whieli are engraved with a series of zigzag lines, 
the various turns of the zigzag being of equal length, thus 
breaking up these faces into a number <4' squares, when viewed 
by oblique light, the illusion being augmented by the peculiar 
under-cutting of the grooves; these have at some previous period 
been infilled with pipe-clay. The hand-hole is made in the 
usual way. 

The length from apex to apiex is 2 feet 4^ inches; greatest 
width, 34 inches: thickness, 2 inches: and the weight, 1 pound 
9 ounces. 

ill'. Hardy informs me that this shield oiiginally came from 
Victoria. There can be very little doubt that it is either 
Victorian, or from the southern part <■! Xew South Wales. 

I now pass on to shields of an entirely ditfereiit type. 

The first (Plate VI. Figs. 4 ami 5), for which I am again 
iiiilelited to 41r. Hardy, seems to be intt'rmediate between the 
Mid'iii and shields. It is elliptical in shaiie, obtusely 

pointed at each end, very gentlv convex both back and front, 
the degree of convexity being about eijual, and the lateral edges 
'harp. The niaigins both back and iront hate the surface layer 
<if wood leiuoved, leaving semi-oval spaces, forming a coiitiiiuoiis 
.scallop. On the front there are six of these on one side, and 
'even on the other, and on the back .si.x on each side. These 
spai/es, together w ith the immediate apice.s on the two aspects 
are whitened with yupe-clay. The trout of tlie shiehl is divided 
into six longitudinal zones by incised lines, .sn arranged that the 
middle hue of the shiehl is occuyued by one of the dividing 
hues. These zones are cut uj) into triangles with their apices 
alternately to the right and left, and are infilled with diagonal 
incisions very regularly cut. The entire surface is blackened 



lo6 E. Etheridge, Jcx . — Xules cm 

apparently by charring, but a band of ruddle lias been added at 
each end, just within the whitened apices. 

The back of the shield is differently ornamented. A broad 
longitudinal space extends from apex to apex, interrujited by 
the hand-hole, and is unsciilptured. The incised lines bounding 
this space are not parallel, but converge from each end towards 
the centre. Tliese broad spaces are flanked on each side by 
narrower zones incised in a similar manner to those of the front. 

The hand-hole is very wide and affords ample protection to 
the hand. The niargius have portions of the outer woody 
layer removed, leaving two sipiares, and three oblong spaces 
on each side. Both the former and the general surface of the 
back are blackened in a similar manner to the front of the 
shield, whilst the letters are whitened like the scalloped edges 
of the shield in general. 

The length is 2 feet ; breadth, 7 inches ; thickness, 3 inches ; 
and the weight, 2 pounds 2 ounces. 

I am nnaccpiainted with the name of this shield, and it does 
not appear to correspond with any of the commoner types, 
although the dual oruamentatioii especially, and the outline to 
some extent, seem to ally it to the (roolnurm/ shield of Queens- 
land. 

Mr. Hardy informs me that this weapon was obtained at 
Cooktown, North Ea.st Queensland. 

The next shield (Fig. 6) is one of the most perfect and 
beantiful examples that has come under my notice. The front 
is convex, with the middle longitudinal line as a flat smooth 
space. The smface is broken up on either side into eight oblong 
figure^, and separated from one another by seven similar cross- 
bais, defined by closely fluctuating incised lines on three sides. 
These oblong spaces vary from 3 to 4.1 inches in longitudinal 
inea.surement, and are infilled with herring-bone sculpture, of 
which the incisions are deep, somewhat undercut, and has been 
filled level with the general surlace with pipe-clay. (i)u the 
hack, the shield towards the apices is flat, gradually rising in 
the central line of the handle, to a ridge, from which the .sides 
slope off rather concavely to the edges. The handle projects, 
and has been formed by removing the surrounding wood. The 
back of the shield is quite plain and unsculptured. 

The length is feet 10 inches ; width, 5 inches ; thickness, 
2 inches ; and weight, 2 pounds 8 ounee,«. 

The shape of this shield is .stiictly in accord with the ordinary 
form of M esteru Australia termed the Woonda,' and the method 
of forming the handle is practically the same. The ordinary 
II oondu, however, of which I have seen several, is fluted from 
' Smyth, “ Aborigines o£ Victoria,” 18T8, I, p. 330, f. 148. 



AvstruUuii Shiihh, inuri' imrticularhj the Lrv nhUDuj. 137 


top to bottom, parallel to the lateral margins, 'witli a deflection 
in the centre, and is destitute of the elaborate carving of the 
present shield. It might at first sight be taken for a Mulja, 
but the method of forming the handle is that of the Woonda, 
and not of the former. 

]\lr. Hardy, to tvlioin it belongs, received this .shield from Port 
Darwin, but I have little doubt of its "West Australian origin. 
Angus' also gives an illustration of a similarly made and .shaped 
.shield, this, however, is painted not incised. It also is from 
West Australia. 

In the “ Proceedings of the Linnean Society of X.S. Wales,’’ 
I lately figured- several varieties of the Queensland Goohiinrrij 
shield. Thanks to Mr. Hardy’s ardour in collecting, I am now 
able to describe an eighth form of this interesting weapon. 
(Figs. 7 and 8.) 

It is conve.K both back and front. The latter has the outer 
woody layer at tlie apices removed as usual, and in addition 
form two triangular spaces on each side. The ceutr<il portion 
of the front, in the form of a parallelogram, is distinguished by 
being vertically incised, with a triangular .space or wing on each 
side, devoid of ornament. The parallelogram .shows traces of 
having lieen coloured with ruddle. On the back, which is about 
erptally convex with the front, there are similar triangular spaces 
at the sides and apical spaces from whicli the outer woody layer 
lias been removed. Above and below the h.and-hole, counter- 
sunk in the usual way, are four pyramidal figures, two and two, 
and base to base, ornamented with incised lines parallel to the 
longer margins, thus leaving at both ends of the shield a more 
or less wedge-shaped and unornainented space. The piyramidal 
figures were at one time coloured red. 

The length is 1 foot inches; breadth, 7) inches ; thickness, 
13 inches ; and weight, '2 pounds. 

The present shield is of tl>e typical (loot mu rr)/ form, incised 
both hack and front, and is so in a manner I have not seen 
before. The bare apices are universal in the Goolmicrri/, whilst 
the distribution of the sculptured and plain surfaces is very 
varied tlirongliout the type. 

The bard usage this weapon has undergone is evinced by its 
notched edges and the old spear-marks on the front. 

The last weapon of defence but one I have to refer to (Figs. 9 
and 10) is one of the large light fig-wood shields of Central 
(Queensland, for which I am indebted to Mr. Harry Stoekdale, 
of Svdney. Very little has been published regarding these lop- 
sided shields, and I am not even acpiainted with any of the 

* “South Australia Illustrat'C.l.” IStC, t. -471, 10 and 11. 

' lS05j yol. ii (2), p. 506, t 33-3S. 



158 


Pi. EtheriD(;e, Jl'X. — Xutc.i on 


native names. Smyth figures’ one from Eockingliam Bay, and 
remarks that it “differ.s altogether from the shields in use in 
other parts of the continent.” 

The present example, like that given in Smyth's figure, forms 
an irregular oval, hut is even more symmetrical than the gener- 
alitv of this type. There is no incised work on either back or 
front. and the ornamentation is confined to the latter, and consists 
of a nearly bilaterally symnietucal pattern in red, black and 
yellow colours The yellow is used to define the pattern, the 
black as an edging to it, whiPt the red is used to fill in certain 
angles, besides tinting the boss tliat forms the central jioint of 
the shield, rising above its surface. It is exceedingly difficult 
to give an intelligible description of the pattern. It will be 
observed that at each extremity of the shield is a "^Mike figure, 
having two of the angles in each case filled with red colour, and 
projecting from these, what, to use cartographer’s symbol phrase, 
may be termed “ swallows.” The general face of the shield is 
then occupied by a figure that, when viewed transversely, may 
be likened in shape to a stunted .sand hour-glass, with the top 
and bottom surmounted by a cap-piece, whilst the interiors of 
the two euils of the hour-gdass contain each a T-piece, the two 
together giving a secthmal figure not unlike that of a locomotive 
rail. Tlie interiors of tlie cap-pieces are filled with red colour. 
The re-entering angles of the hour-glass are occupied, top and 
bottom, by two " swallows,” one single, the other double. 

The back of the shield is slightly concave with a projecting 
handle, formed by cutting away the wood 

The length is 3 feet 2 inches ; the breadth, 1 foot 4 inches, 
the thickness, exclusive of tlie boss and handle, inches ; and 
the weight 5 pounds .3 ounces. These jieculiar shields are 
compaiativtly light, and, according to tSmyth, are made of the 
soft wood from the buttress roots of a Tlie pattern 

painted on them is very varied, that figured by .Smyth'’ being 
of an entirely ditfereut character to the prc.sent shield. It 
consists of a series of ovals within one another, concentric 
with the margins of the weapon, with a re-entering angle top 
and bottom, and surrounding a peculiar and nearly bilaterally 
symmetrical figure in the centre. The only other figures of 
this type, with which I am accpiainted, are given by Liimholtz.’' 
His plates show how these shiekls are used in the rnelic, and 
he ahso corroboiates .Smyth’s statement of the nature of the 
wood. Lumholtz makes the following remarks : — “ When the 
native holds this shield in his left hand before liiiii, the greater 

’ “ Aboi i^ines of Vietoria,” 1878, I, p. 3:14. 

’ “ Ab)ru:ine=i of Victon.i,’' ls7S, I. 

’ “ -Xmong Cannibals,” lb90, pp. 130, 123, pi. opp. p. 122, pi. opp. p. 124. 








Australia/i Shields, more iKietkidarhj the Drunmung. 159 

part of Iris body is protected. The front is painted in a 
grotesque and effective manner with red, white and yellow 
earth colours, and is divided into fields, which, wonderfully 
enough, differ in each man's shield, and thus constitute his 
coat of arms.” The patterns depicted on the shields figured 



by Luniholtz are very curious, but different from the present 
example. His were obtained on the Herliert Iliver, Central 
Queensland. The present example is evidently from the 
central area of the latter colony. 

Tlie last .shield (Figs. 11 and 12, is peculiar, and, so far as 



I<i0 E. Etiiekidge, Juy .— oa Austral Inn Shnlils. 


nir knowledge enables me to judge, of a rare type. It is ;i 
.small oval weapon made of BunhAn wood, obtusely pointed at 
tile apiiees. On the outer face it is convex tian.sveisely, and 
slightly concave longitudinally, i.c., the apices are mi a slightly 
different plane to the centre of the shield. The wood is also 
thicker at one end than the other. Tlie handle i.s not made by 
couiiter.siiiking, but by cutting away the wood over the whole 
inner surface, leading the handle in relief, in a similar manner 
to the subject of Fig. 10. The outer face is very roughly in- 
cised, and the ornament is not similar on both sides. The 
central longitudinal line i.s occupied by a double series of 
iliomboidal figures, tailing off into a .single row below. r)n 
tlie right, and separated from the central .series of figures by a 
narrow intervening clear .space are many rows of similar rlioni- 
boidal figures, the rows lessening in number top and bottom. 
<Jii the extreme left are three other rows, connected with tlie 
more numerous on the right by zig-zag .simple lines. I’etweeii 
the left-han.I group and tliose in the central line of the shield 
are seven continuous herring-bone incisions of eipiuil length, as 
a while figure. At the apices, but within the sculptured .sur- 
face, are clear, unineised, irregular .spaces. Xo colour appears 
to have l.ieen used in the ornamentation of this weapon. ..Vs 
might be anticipated from the nature ot the wood, it i.s hea\'y 
fur its .size. 

The length is 1 foot 8 inches ; the breadth, 8 inches ; thick- 
ness, exclusive of the Iiandle, is | of an inch ; and the weight 
i.s 2 pounds 2 ijunces. 

I am not acipuaiiited with the native name of this weapon, 
ni'iv with any previous reference to it. The specimen was 
obtained from the blacks at Clermont Station, Cjiieeiisland. bv 
IMr. Henry King, ami is now in the pjo.s.se.ssiou of Mr. X. Ilardv, 
to whom I am under obdigatioms for the loan of thi.s and other 
y eapoiis. 

As oil previous occasions I am iiulehted to Tlr. Charles 
Iledley, F.L.S., for the illustrations accoiiipianying these rcmaiks. 


it- SCriptiurl of tin' 


Tig- 1.— Sul,, Tien.: iM-obiblv from Tietorij,. Aniiular alonj the 
side*, and quadran^rnlar in ripction. 

die. 2 — — .-idc TieiT ; 'U'clbneton, X.S. Wales. Elat along the 
sihU's. ap'l oval ia section. 

Eig 3 —JO, •«//,«!/, .,/ —.s„le view: probably from Tietoria. In tliis view, one 
of the front im ised faces, and one of the side and back faces are 
■=een. 

j,' "' j between tbe d/afyn and Geea,„. Front view. 

xig. 5. — v'evv uf 4. 






G. Goddex. — Xu'ja and othtr Frohtinr Trihcs, X.F. Lidia. 161 


Fi». 6 — W'oonda. — Fron^viev^; probaMv from West Australia. 

Fi?. 7. — (rool-iiari'U. — ^Front Tiew, sliowicg contusions trom blow?. 

Fig. S — Bd'jk viev\' of Fjg. 7. 

Fig. 9. — Large oval s’liel i f oin Central Queensland. Front view, jiaiiited, and 
witli a cr-ulral boss. 

Fisr. 10 — Back view of Fig 9. 

Fig. 11. — Small oval sliielii With, pointed apices made of Banhsia wood. Front 
view. 

Fig. 12. — Side ■’•’cw of Fig. 11, exhibiting the luetliod of leaving the handle in 
rcIieL 


Is’aua and Other Frontier Tuibc^ of Xoktii-East India. 
By Gertrude il. (Jodden. 

[with plate Tirr.j 

I. 

X.\G.V TiilBEs:. 


G.) 

Litrodnctory. 

ill) 

Social Stri'dn re. 

Kin Groups. Village Gr.vcviVincnt. Ciiitnd AntlmrUy. Sorial 
L'ldt'y and rc/adfi'.-c. Marriage. Lirfh Gu^fians. LtJehn 
Chang nr nfnrang. 1 nd irid nal Proiu.rty ill Land and la- 
luritunee. Slavery. OoLii. Tattoo. 

riii.) 

Kligion. 

Chief Deify. Varioii.=i Gads, on Spirifs. Infareorrse n.-ifk Gods 
and Sjiirifs. Sarrigiri', Cenmanad Sirla^lan n.al Taljoa. 
Disra.^e. Oincno. F'dira.ls. Funeral lutes. After-icorld 
Dthefs. 


(i.) 

Infrodiietory. 

The wild hill tracts whicli till recent years formed the Xorth- 
E.i.^teni frontier of the Indian Empire are still to some extent 
an almost unknown land. A dividing harrier between the 
plains of As.*am on the one hand, and of X'j,por Burma on the 
other, these Xanil Hills were hmg known as the abode of fierce 
and intractable tiihes, living in a state of incessant intertribal 
warfare, and asserting their presence on our border by savage 
VOE. .XNVI. M 



162 


G. GoddEX. — Xii'ja and other 


niiiG ; I'Ut punitive expeditious aud official inteiccurse left us 
vitli a verv incomplete knowled.pe of the people. Fearless with 
the C'lnaite of savage ipnorauce, they repeatedly resisted aud 
killed (ifficei's en,eapeil in fi'ontier rvoik, and entrenched in a 
remrae l:i!l country they eluded detailed scientific ohservation. 
A fmthir ditticultv lay in tlie nuiltiplieitv of laiipnay'es .spoken 
aiiioim iheui. Later yeai> have ci-en the Xapa tidie.s reduced to 
p -ace and order, hut as far a.s I am aware no adenuate lecord. 
either uf the hostile tribes, or of the more peaceful members of 
the re-e, has as yet been attemjited. The followiiip jiape^ 
theiff re lucke uo cl dm to completeness, but are rather notes of 
the people, chiefly pathered from scane Government rtcmals, and 
from a few seatteted scientific papers. 

I'.'.'toic procc'ding to deal in detail wiili Xaga life we may 
biietly notice .some past conditions cif the tribes, their position 
in leaard to external intiuences, their racial affinities, aud their 
lanpuaee. 

We find a record of the hostility of the till e.s ns far back as 
ISdo, heu Enplish r.fficers at the lie.id of some native levies 
fought th'ur wav through the Angfimi and ICutcha Xiigas. At 
thi' tiiiie and for many suhsecjucnt year.s the X<lg;is made tl.em- 
'clv"- known to us .IS barliansu^ .s.ivages ; the .'.ivagc-' virtues of 

bl l-lr-ud and lelcntle.ss ra'ding, and .savage igiiuraiice of many 

of tho iii't piinciiiles i.f the Irighev civilisation were everywhere 
a])] ail nt. For the ten years following 1836. they laiilcd onr 
bolder, eiuaged in mutual exterminuticiii, and defied our elforts 
to inaiMge tliein, alike by cifficial tours or punitive expeditions. 
F ir the next ten vears the (iovernment withdrew fium all 
iuterf ’o.ncc with tlio trihes, but this expeiimeiit ended in raids 
whii h fiebici-d definite action. A .■^trollg central .Aation was 
fcstabli-lc-d '. cciiiciliatory intercourse with the Xagas was 
enjoined . and onr knowledge cif tlic trihc.s wars greatly extended. 
Fui'lher luiAcmeiils followed towaids cicilidng the country, 
came 1 ciii evith much trihal opposition, aud at the cost of one 
vain, il le life, rhat of (faydain Ihitlor, I )eputv Commissiouer of 
the lldl" . I’l fereuce to Laptain Lutler'.s ethnological and other 
reseai'i hc^ will he found in a ]>revious volume of this Journal.’ 
This w.is II nine of vieorous exhi'oiliou of the Xagii character; in 
the twi I years, from 1S74 to 1 S7(i, the raids of one trihe alone, that 
C'f the Ang.iml Xiigiis, resulted in the death of over oOO persons, 
h lift her iiiea'iires of control weie now decided uyiuii. and hayi- 
pily tor the tiihes thev hdl at this critical yieriod under the 
management ot iMr. (t. H. Damant an officer singularlv ipialified 

' ^R. W. Wyndtluyp' -‘.Tmirtial Iiotirute,” to', xi, ISfii, 

b', ei'idf'i ri'C I’t’fi rs t'l .1 hv C.iptnin Butler, "ii the 

■■Angauii Aigi'is," published in tl.e " Asiatic ‘Soeietj-'of Eeiig.il,” part I, ls7.5. 



Fruiuitr T i‘dj€6 oj Forth-Fust hu^ Lit. 


163 


to prom(_)te their eivili^ation. Mr. Damaiit brouuht to liis pu^t 
not oulv adrninistriuive vigour, but aho a seieutitic stiulv 
of the people; and the success of his brief eigditeeii months 
of ottice may doubtless be attributed to this uiiiou of the 
temper of the student with tlie iudetatieulde energy of the 
active magistrate. The task btd’ore him was to begin the 
welding of a mass of diseouiiected and isirbarous tribes 
into a law-abiding community,’'* ami though we may not eoii- 
ceru ourselves here with liis ]political sm-.e.ss, ids letteis and 
report.s show im souiething of X.lgfi savagerv <is it e.vistepl twenty 
vears ago. rteterenees to his authrop .'logical ami philul. igicul 
work wdl be fmmd in the following pagi^s. He wrote that the 
people di'l not 'eeni to have tlie 'lightest: flr-a of the value ot life, 
and after he ha'l idf •etal the difficult task of removing his head- 
'[uartei's to the advanced I'ost of Ki'luma, he aiiticii'iited having 
to live ill a stockade for two vears, ami found it hanlly sjd'e to 
go out svitliout a guard. Ac tlie re'hictiou of a relieliious 
village, against which an e.'cpeilitimi was necessary, the X.lgas 
came round the cam[> iu full w.ir lire", challenging the paiiy lo 
come and tight tliem. Atmtlier village informed Mr, Damant 
that thev intended to .sew uii hi' mmuli a'cl i-yo' if Im wmit 
there. Yet within a few mouths (.'f the a'lvaiice to Kohiiiia at 
least a temprirarv improvemeiu was a].])aivnt, an iini'roviuncnt 
wisely reeciveil by IMr. liamant. with caution: - I fear," lie 
writes, "the love of tigliting is t'i'i doi ply implanted in a 
Xaga's nature to be c-vteriiiiuate'l so ciuiekly."- After twelve 
months of ailministratioii, ciinsidciable advances towaisls civib- 
sation could be rejioitd. In cmk'avoni mg to umlerstaud tlie 
X.iga tribes wc may leoall that i\Ir. Mauiaiit iicver doul'icil 
their capacity for uliimate jicace ami onler. This hope is eon- 
stantlv repeated bv him. ami Ids Aiimiid.sCratioii lieport I'ou- 
cliidos by sketi-hing a fiiiurc advance, " .Step bv step until wc 
have succecilcd in era'licatiiig tlie List vest iges of the murder 
and bloodsheil which now prevails among all tlieso tribes ' ■ The 
work wldi'h iMr. I'amant foresaw ^o clearly, and the success 
which he antici]iat'-(i, were t'> be ai hicwcd by other hands. A 
few months after writing the above he was spot ilowu at the 
entrance of a village m-ar Kohima. Iu his iiiitiinelv death 
the friuitier tribes lost a wise ami skilful ailininistr.itor, and a 
scientific career full of pioudse was cut short. The detmici' 
of Koliima against an ovt-rw helming fmee of Xiig.is followed, 
and the Xiiga war of TSTS-fi, a war not coneludeil niitil is.s!;). 

^ Spt' the re^sohitinn hy Sir .^^euart Baylev tm Damanr’s “ Report t'f 
thf* .^d auu«trnt!'>n of the Na^a for the Year ISTS-O/’ 

' ’ Oiticini Rt'prrt." (I If. Damant. 1S70 

^ •“ .Administration Report of the Xaga Ililis.” 1&7S-9. G-. H. Dani'int 

w 2 



G. M. Goddex. — XatjA and other 


l‘U 

J'li ru that (late the trih'es ajipear to have ahniahaied tlie i'lea of 
expelliiiy Eiiali^h rule, and iii 1S02 it \va? po^-i'ule to record the 
ft’lHliiieiit of hope' expivsxed hv !Mr. Ganiaiit twenty yeai' 
earlier. Since the oIa?e of ISSl, i\Ir. Aitchceon v rites, "the 
];>toivc,f the di'tiict shows the pro'_;re"ix’e C'tahlishinent of 
]i'We and U'jcsd ruder, and the epaict snoluissiuii of the Xdads to 
o';r t nh- 

A^'e Heed not dwell further on tlie warlih'e ijualitics of the 
race; hut it should ht^ ijotcl tln.t cveii in the eaillcr years 
the trioc' were not exclusively ho-tile. For nearly ten year', 
fo 111 1S7'' to issy. the tsihsauar Xfici.l trihes yave no diiect 
t: ' d’le, ti.ide laicdy developed,, ainl n;’"io!iary woik appeared 
to li; \e h-reii etlic.a io.c,'. The Iloiiyiiia Xaut.s have had almost 
t iiilornilv pcmcefiil dieilinys with the (foveiTintent. 

11 is lolly politii.d inteieouise with the tl ihes has lieon 
'"I plcmeiiti'd to Some extent hy mission, u v hd njui . Thus ill 
t 'll a n. "loiiary was lesidinu ainony the Sifi'.iyar X.iy.is, and a 
s'lio ,-"1 ,! mission sf-h,-iol existed, to xvhich rnany of the child’s 
' -nt rlieir Solis for iii'tiucti'jii. Ty l.hTi. the Xew Testament 
hi 1 ' ocoi liaiishited into Al.iui] I’.ii ; and in the late census ivpioit 
for Is'il vco tiiid mention of two X, 'mil mission stations. Fuither 
opportunities of receivinyf extemal influence vere ufhaded to 
the Xay,is hy theii tradiiiu activity. This ac ti\ ity hionolit them 
C' i,;r 11 ' (faleiuta ; ami maiiv of tlie Soutliein and Xortheiii 
tiadi'd coii'iantly with the plains, and worked in t! e 
vintor months in tlie tv y.tidoiis at the foot of the hills. The 
int' I'course i'-tv eeii the X'.iy.'i tribes Ijordeiiny oil Assam and 
llio As'iuue'e has heeii const nit. and a certain amount of Himlu, 
Ihidilhi'C. ami Mu.ssulmau inflc.ence may thus have penetrated 
into the liills. 

The XuLtas have tlm.s been hmy exy used to foreiyu inlkience. 
They liave luien in contact vith (Ihristiniiity, Tfindnism, and to 
, ome e.xtent with I’.uddlii'in; the move entei']'risiny of the 
trihesmen have traded in As'am, and even in Beny.d : and the 
horder I'eople have had the ojijiortuniiy of passiiiy on into the 
interior the external influences ainnnd them. Ihit althonydi it 
i' iieee'Sary to admit tlu'se tacts, little seems to have resulted 
ffoiu them. Ihe tribes exhibit jiriinitive beliefs, and lice in 
communities regulated by primitive social rules, which have 
hitliei'to yaovcikedi no commeiit of foreiyu oriuin from their 
ohs, a vers.- How tar indications occur of Hindu influence will 
he considered when eve p.iss to tlie nature of these helieis, and 
to till- stiiicture of the village yroup.s whieli hold them. 

I t'. Alt' hasen. " Tr '.iiie,*. Eriffarenient', rind .Sanail'.” 1S02, ■ p 2S3 

Fc-^iblv there mai be an eweplion in three sma'.i tr,bes mliabitine tha 
V! .ntpur railtv. ® 



Fi-od'icr Triues of yurtli-Ead India. 


ICo 

Cla'birieii 'ny IrinpiiOLie, tlie X;iy;is are iiieiuliers of that ,'_L^ .r 
race CiriiVL'iiiently calleil Tiln-te J]ur;na!i, whii-h exteiiiU t'r. cm 
the eijui'ce of tlit^ liiuus to Si, an. h)f the early iiiovc-iiieut' c i‘ 
the Tibeto Ihiricaii auJ IJuraiese laoes little appears to I e 
known. A’iew.M ren'iitly jait torwaaU aeM'.iue a y.-neral mo'ce- 
iiieiit from L'l iitral A-ia soinhwaals towanlc the Ikiy of Beii"al 
of the Moll iiiiil Karen races, the Burmese, anil the Sli.ius. Tiie 
X.io.’is luav pierhaps be aftiliateJ to the Xortherii hill tribes of 
lUuma, known as the Kfikhyin ; or to the tribes who inh.ib'*' 
the hilhs to the west of Burma known to the Burmese uikIl'I- ri ■■ 
name of Khvin or wihl man, and their iie;M'nl>ours, the Ivuki-'.^ 
The identity of the Xfiya and m-iuhbi.iuiiny Knki tribe.s is an 
open (ptie.stiou, thouyh we may note that Tlr. l),imant found •’ as 
a lule, a maiktd distinction in diiess ami manner' between the 
Knki raid Xfcca. evoii in cases where their dialects closely 
resemble each other”; he adds •• there is cuily one tribe wirii 
which I am aci|uainted, tlie Clmroo, dwellers in the hills i f 
IManipur, ■which iii aip\ way unite the cl'araeteiistio features of 
the two . . 

Xo final classification of the laiiynayes spoken by the hill 
tribes of the Xcnth-Eastein frontier lias yet been attempteil. 
-Mr. Jtauiant wiote a earefnl account'* of many of the tribes and 
tongues of this frontier, imdnding those of tlie Xiiu'fis and 
KukLs, hut of Some of the trihvs little or nothing was then 
known, and his work ekdmed only to he pro\ i'ional ; and the 
recent Assam Census report, wlule admitting a great advam e 
in our knowledge of the lornl TTbeto-Burman langnagos, 
observes that the afliuitie.s and ditfeienees between them Ikivo 
hitherto been Si/aicely tOllcheii. 

The womierfnl multiplicity of their languages i.s a S'dieiit 
eharacteri'tic of the X.iga race. IMr. Havis, Deputy Commi'- 
sioner of the lli'trict, wiite.s, all the tribes in this distiicl 
spe.ik LinguageS which aie at the present day 
'O diffcieiit that a mcmher of one tiibe speaking his own 

^ “Report on the C'en.-U'- of IiaIu.” IS'Jl. J, Burner, p. 127 ' 77 . 

- /if. ^ , p. 1 2*.*. 

(-T H. JKnnfint, “ Journal Roval Asiatic Sooietv," 11 ? , voi. sii. ]■> 22S. 
\rr. I’aiTies (■' Indian Ceii'in?, IM'l, RDpurt.'* p. of tho ilikiis 

ncluiUd in the Nuiid LB' iip. I'lU tins i i.i'-'-itii.atii-ii is n--l f'nen a- tii al h\ 
fT-ait 1 ' the *' A-Miiii iriojnrt, ’ IVdl. lu Mr. L’aiiK*/ Kej mri (pp 

:'M(l 15L‘) t)U the rel.ition ot tlie Aa.L’a to tlie Kj.kh\iu pe<']>le appear to ei-Dtra- 
dut o:u li otlier. It ina\ be notieeil that ^Ir. iktiiiunt in a ]ia'pt-r in the 

* Calcutta ReMew/’ ].S7o. that. "The INaLMs are tlie obb-t '•ettu'r?. it not tl'e 
ahor .fino', ot Aurrh bV.L-liar: we llutl that every otlnr tribe bus tratlitun? ui 
1 aviii^ lived in some otlier eountrv. ’ 

■’ " A'otes oil the Lui'alit\ and Ib'puhition of the Trihe-^ dwellme between t 1 ' 
l‘s h;.m:i] litr:' -u d A'nm'thi Cf 11. Uainau'. "Juuruaiot the Ro\ J 

As-Utio ft \ n.s , 1 ul. p. 22s sc<i. 



G. ]\r. GodI'EX. — Xd'jA and othrr 


1 fit? 

]:i!i;^i!nc;e is quite unintelliuil'le to a uieiuber ot tlie next tribe.”' 
A\'e tiiid the same conditions (le-'C-ribed by Mr. 1 hnnaiit in the 
] paper nlready ret'erred to. He placed the number of 

] iutuallv uuintelliqible Xaya laueuaucs as not Ic'S and probably 
laui'e than thirty. “In some in'tanees,” he adils, perhaps a 
lc\v mar ’oe reduec(l to tlie rank of dialect.s but in the majority 
( t ea-es they ;ire e^'^entially dijlinct laiiyiiaees This 

1 imni^tic xari ition lie found at it.s height anionu' the Eastern 
X.lq.is. Amonq't the-e be wiote, •‘the .ureate-t confimiou 
exists; there i" 'Uch a multiplicity of tiibes, each speaking a 
ditterent dialect, aiai thec' are so small in numbers, sometimes 
( insisting of only one village, that without visiting each village 
liei'sunallv, it is almost impossible to define the limits of each 
tribe with any approach to accuiaey, or even to say jirecisely 
l.ciw many tril>es there are.'’ Tim s.iurce of this immense 
number ot dialects he found in the isoLilioii of communities, 
ill Constant cvarfaie : “ Every tri lie, almost every village, is at 
wai witli its neighbour, and m.i Xiiga of these paits dale leave 
tl.e teriitory of ids tribe without the ju'obability, tiiat bis life 
will be the }ienalty, . . .” In a farther de-iciiptiou of these 

Eastern Xag.ls he speaks of the many different tribes “ all, or 
neaily all. speaking languages unintelligible the one to the 
other. 'Within twenty miles of country five or six different 
dialects are often to lie found.'’-' 

It IS noticeable tiiat in several cases dissimilarity of language 
and dialect was not found to involve equal d .ssimilaiity in 
ciistonis and manners. Tims the J/t'o, and MvjanijlJLaaij 

Niica, tbougli very suiiilar in dress and customs, sjioke dialects 
V. Iiicli ditfered Cfinsideiably ; the Z/mfo language differed very 
n fiterially froni that of its iieinldiours. but in dress and customs 
they re^embltjd each other closely; tlie Angiiiui did not ditter 
inateiially from other inembors of tlie Xiigfi family in manners 
and customs, fart the linguistic diveruenee was so great that it 
i' doufitful, ’ IMr. I)aniaiit wrote, whether they should not be 
( !a'Se,\ a distinct family of tlu-mselvi's ’'■* 

Mr Itavi--, the officer in charge of the Hill tracts, lias reduced 
the language ot the main Xiiga triiies on the western slope of 
the Indo-Eurnian w.iteiHiecl to more or les.s grammatical f'ovm. 
He was saiil, in ISOl. to bi‘ the best uutborifv on the subject.* 
Me may lefer to bis .section on the Xag.i lanunages in the 
'■ As-arn Censiis Eeport, isOl,” p. it;;; 

M e lia\e as yet no knowledge of the lutmlier of Xag.i tribes 
c.bicli exist in the border bills. Mr. Llaniaiit gave a provisional 

' " ronoi- Export," 1891, p. 163. 

^ riiiiiiLiTit, I Jciurii.Hl RotuI Asiutio SocictT,*' n 3 .. toI. xu, t*. 228 

* ■ * “Cieutral Eepurt Cen;ie, ludm, 1891.'’ J. A. Baines. 



Frontia- Triles of Kuiih-East ladia. 


167 


ouumeratioii of eighteen tribes. In the latest authority, the 
•• Assam Census Report for IS'Jl,” nine tiibes are given, viz. : the 
Angumi, Ao, Kaluii, Kacha, Kezhama, Lhota, Xaked, Eengma, 
and. Seiiia. Other tubes are named li}' earlier writers, but 
aiiiuiigst all the various accounts of the hill people, extending 
over a period of nearly fifty years, none otfeis a satist'aetoiy tiibal 
record. Eatlier than attempt out of tld.s confusion of many 
writers and imperfect knowledge, any individual treatment of the 
Xiiga tribes, the present sketch will aim at presenting as fully 
as possible the cu.stums, beliefs, and usages of the Xaga race, 
care being taken to }ireserve all well established tribal refer- 
ences. The only tribe which will be described separately is 
that of the Angdmi, of which a faiily full record is available. 

XoTB. — The (livijiijiis of the Xaga. uaiued Miyaugkliang ami Maraui, 
bv Mr. Damant, have been used as .synonymous with the Meeyaiigkbang, 
Murram, and Muram of Dr. Brown and Major McCulloch ; and the Mao 
of the former for the Mow of the latter. ADo the Maring of Mr. Damant 
has been taken as etpiivalent to the Murring of Dr. Brosvn. References 
given to Brown and IMcCulloch must therefore be read in the light of 
this nomenclature. References to these two writers refer to the “ -iccoiuit 
of the Valley of Mimuipoie and of the Hdl Tribes,'' by Major McCulloch 
and the ‘‘ Suustical Account of the Xative State of Manipur and Hill 
Tciritoiy under us Rule,'’ by Dr. Brown, 

Social Strcctuee. 

Kiu-gruirjis. — The unit of society in a large tribe of the Xaga 
race,‘ lias been described as not the village Imt the Ihcl, in 
other words society was founded on the tie of kinship rather 
than of common fealty, or common land. Men felt themselves 
hound to obey the laws of the kiu group.s ; no man might 
marry within hi.s own l-hel ; curious funeral rites were per- 
formed over the dead by members of .some other Uni ; and 
/7(<7.s, li\'ing side by .side in the .same village, would stand so 
far apart in hostile feeling that no effort would be made by 
uiie to check the massacre, witliin the village walls, of another. 

We have uiifortmiutely very scanty evidence a.s to the 
■Structure of the other Xag:i tribes. The two tribes of tlie 
Aos, the CTiuiigli and Moiigseii, are divided into exogamoiis 
sub-divisions, the names of all or some of which varv from 
village to village. Although no memher of any of these sub- 
divisioiis might iiiaiiy within his gioup, any IMoiigsen could 
many any IJliungli. 

All apparent survival of annual tribal marriage was recently 
observed among this tribe in a yearly festival at which the 
voiitli of one Ui'd performed a mimic capture of the girls of 
auotlier UuL- 

‘ ILe Aniiauil. 


‘ nifra, p .170. 



16S 


Or. M. Goddex. — c'lt ^ oilu'r 


. r. The J'eiiiA Xiu:is pa’e divihol intn rnaav exi-Ljariions 

(- 611 - .. 1-1 ^ 1 
su< Eei'-G-r. sn^'-'iivi''ih*iis, 'vvithiii '\viiH-h no iiuiniaue can take 

IS'J], p. 2t7. pla, e. (Jue ur pei'liaps two other triliO' are noticed 

as ol iservino strict rules apcdnst the marriage of the same familyd 

111 the al oenre of iiiforiiiatioii all that can he .I'Serted is a strong 

prohahility that the soeial structure of all the Xauii triljes 

was not more advaucosl th.an that of the powerful .Vnctemi ; 

that the tie of kin-hip ami not the tie of laud piecailed ; and 

that thus tlie villages were merely convenient huildiny places 

for clans to yather in. and not any organic pait of the social 

structuie. At the present dav chihheii Lelouy to the 

fs'U ^ ’“>39 f^i^licr's kJi.J in all Xag;l tribes of the Xhiga Hills 

^ Hi-tnct. 

J'iJhujc Gor, r,iiji,iif . — The governineiit of avillaue community 
sueh as this would uatuially teiirl to he demociatic ; each 
independent IJul would demand a voice in any common action ; 
and the svstem of hlood-feud and head hunting would check 
the growth of any one clan into a position of supreme 


power. 

IVe find accordingly that the village group is described as a 
democratic coimiiunity. each man is said to lie ns good as his 
neiglihour, ami t'ne he.idnien posses^ little authority. 

H-i'iiGtnrif CJn'G . — In ohier accoLiiits the presence is repeat- 
edly noticed of hereilitary chiefs who possesseil a merely nominal 
poever. In oiie tribe each village coininunity had one or gener- 
ally two such chief.s. ami t'ne eldest >ou took over the dignity 
dining his father's life-time, should the latter lie very iiitiim ; 
the pi ictical affair- of the tribe were settled by a council of 
(Luliupap aged chii'fs ami wairiois.’ Anotiier tribe possessed a 
lUCulLah, hereditary village chief who tiad no great influence, 
!’■ hut I'cceivcd a leg of every animal killed for a feast, 

with file fii't of the w'tiie ; and the assistance of the village in 
his culti\atiou, if he asked it, on one day in the sca-on ; 
Jti-o.in. another accoiiiit of possibly the same trilie ilescribes 
p. 39. hereditary village chiefs, the Kliulla^tXw head, 

nml the A///Xd/.//o, the infeiioi-. The Kluilhn Ijy virtue of his 
oihee received tlie heads of all Hn. garue killed, and tlie first 
hrew of lieptor niadte hy each family hi the vdlage commuitit}'. 
The Kliiihil.jirt received interior presents, and thev were hoth 
entitleil to seats of honour at feasts and other village meet- 
ings ■' 


^ Amon" the Lhotas “marrma:*' 'within the circle or (.?'>) a man's blood 
relation-' ie not Denmttad.'’ Armani Census Report, IS'jl,” p 24S. 

• -Vngami. ::?ee >i\fr<i. 

^ MuCnlioch, p. tW. for a d-Fer-mt ae,ouTit of officers of the Tanehool 
Inbc; viz., tlie “ iCoolUkpa” and the “ Koolpoo.” ^ 



Frontiir Ti ihcs of Xorth-Fcui India. 


169 


Thu villages of another tribe are said to have each 
a chief who is chief in nothing but name. The 
chiefs of the Maraiu tribe .seem to have been re- 
garded in the light of those seini-diviue king.s of 
vhuse oneroins life Mr. Frazer gdves inll eviileiiee.^ 
Tile ilaraijjs were desciibed in 187d as huviiig two 
chiefs, the great and the little chief. Xeitlier hod any tixed 
revenue, but the village would build the house of the great chief, 
and gave him the hind leg of all game caught. '■ Formerly, no 
Br.avn, oiie wos allowed to plant his rice until the great chief 
allowed it, or had tinislied his planting. This mark 
of superiority is not at ]ireseut allowed by the lesser chief, 
who plants without reference to his superior.” Tltere were 
many piohibitions in legard to the fcoil, animal and vegetalile, 
which the chief sliould eat, and the Marams s.dd the chiefs 
post must be an lumonifoi table oiie, on account of these 
restrictions. Other primitive kings endured hurdeiis similar 
ti.i these of the IMfiraiu oliief, as we may see in the account 
given by Diodorus Siculus of those kings ot Egypt to whom 
only two kimls of flesh and a limited (puiiitity (.if wine were 
permitted. - 

Among the more Eastern Xfigiis, the chiefs’ houses were 
much larger than thi.i'c of the ci'inmnn ]iei,ple. according to 
D.dton I’alton; th.at of ore cliiet was a veil constructed 
-Ethnology building of floO to ilOfi feet in length, and occupied 
of Bengal," ‘’the Centre and highest position in the village as 
P’ the manor house.” Daltmi adds tliat the great cliiefs 
had “ chairs or mther stools of ^tate on which they and their 
sons sit ; tlie rulei's stool being the highest, that of the heir 
apparent a .step lower and the other ineuibeis ot the family 
lower still.” 

Captain 111 udie in 1841 found a (< 'haiigiieye) chief t(,iwhoni 
all the X fig, Is lietweeii the Deko and .Teypore looked as their 
head, “ that is they pay trihute called ehaeu eonsi'tiiig of some 
grain cloth &c., but beyond his own Ilwar [viz., ]>ass] I do 
not find that lie h.rs any real power or inllueiice."" Two other 
instances of a cliicftainey exerting limited powers mav ! e 
(pioted from a llejioit i.if IS, >4. (fa[it. IL.lrovd gives a 
curiously complex dcS'-i-ijitiou of Xf ga giu eiiinieiit ; — Each 
clan is ruled by it.s council, and no impoitant nieasiu’e con- 
cerning the welfare of the clan [i-] uudcitakcii without the 

' J. Cr. Frazer, “ GoIJen Boiiali." i, ilmjc ii. 

- J. Cr. Frazer, “ G,.ilden B(.,ii|zli," t|uuling Biedorus Sicu’es, “Bibl. Hiet." 
i, 70. 

-India OtEce Kccerds.” US. Efin.rt of Caj>t. Bivdie, Sept. 15, 1S41. 
§ 10 . 


CMiyang- 
thang) 
Brown, 
p. 32. 
(Marams) 

Biu\( II, 

p, 32. 



170 


G. :m. g OODEN . — other 


consent of the elders. The president is called Klionbao, and 
MiiU Ee '^e’puties Suiidekee and Klioiisaie ; all consul- 

jxrt on the tatiuus are lield in the ^lornug or ludl of justice, 
ri-Liv.me "f and no operation undertaken, till it ha.s been carried 
iiy t]ie votes of tlie council. The title, and position 
.p ciiii. j,, liL'reditarv, the eldest sou invaiiablv 

succecdiiiLr to tin; authority. The Khoiibao receives all 
cmllassie'^ rejilyiiiLt tliereto on his own authority or after con- 
sultation with l.is Council, and in fact may be looked upon 
a.s the mouth-piece of the people. Still the power of the 
chief is pai'uiiiount in all matters of life and tleath and the 
punishment of iitfeaces coiumitted by any of his claii.’^ 

The other case of a limited chiefship mentioned by Capt. 
Huhi'iyd is that of a “Glianouoe” chief who aspired to a general 
confKil over all the tribes between what he spells as the “■ Boree 
Dehiug ■’ and “ L»ekhoo ” rivers ; luit it did not appear that the 
uiletings made hy the other elite's were considered as a mark of 
sulijection, but simply a custom tliat had prevailed from the 
tact of the other idiiefs all being descended in some way or other 
from the (Jliauguon family. (This looks like a later report of 
the Cliiinguey chiefship mentioned hy Brodie in 1841.) Here 
the po-ition of the chief was apparently baseil simply on priority 
ut kindred. 

Leaving these older records we find one tiibe recently 
deSciihed as distiiigiublied I'rom other trilie.s of the Xfigii 
(s-ni' •) Hills district hv the possession of hereditary village 
chiefs. “ Tlie.se chiefs,” Hr. Davis writes in 1891, 
■■ have many piivilcges, ic., their suhjects cut tlieir Jhunts 
and cultivate them for them for nothing ; they get a portion of 
A. c E., every animal killed in tiie chase, and generally are 
is.ti. p 2 -i 6 . ^ po-ition far superior to that of an ordinary 

Xagii heailmaii. TIicsi; chiefs iiivariahly have three or four 
wives, and usually large families. It is the custom for the 
sons as they glow up to start new villages on their own 
aceniint.” A niaiked difference has lieeii asserted to exist 
het'.vei 11 the s, ,i'ial system of Certain 'Western and Eastern 

‘ Capt IfolroTd. Atill-’ Erp()rr, Appendix At, p. cxdi. Tiiis account ia 
oontiriiK'd in .\ paper by Itr S. E. l*e.il, written tiul’tv years later, deseribing a 
vi.-it t.j tiu* Ab'ica Hills *• .V Sowdr.Tig anil a Ifnndekai butli of wlioni I knew 
well. Were iiere wpitnie for onr .arrival. A ‘Sowdong’ is a sort of travelling 
deputy to the Rajah fbv ‘ K.ij.ih ’ Mr. Peal seems to mean llie chief of the 
Iribel ; and a ‘ IlnnJekai is a resilient ileputy, and is of a higher grade The 
highe-r next to the baj.ih and his tamily is a * Kliunsai,’ and there is one to 
I ae 1 \illag.- A\ lien Air Eeahs party were passing on to see the village of 

.oiig long, the Khuns.ti of that plaee. who hail iimt them on the road, gave 
them Ills formal permi.-imi to proceed, “tins we had omitted to wait f.ir but 

’1 'w 'I'-n, ne.essury.” S. E. I’cal, •■Journal of the 

wisiatw ut iJt'iigai. \ol xli, p. Jl, 



Frontier Tribes of Kurth-East Indio. 


171 


Xdgas/ powerful chiefs being a=.cribed to tlie latter, whereas in 
the former ^ll■^trict the chiet’s authority would be almost nil. 
L'tptain Butler, Deputy L'uiiiiiiis'-ioner of the Xaga Hills, did not 
attach weight to this diflereiiee. In a paper of ISTd, he says, 
“■ I am myself, however, ratlier sceptical on this point, and am 
inclined to believe that the Xan.i nowhere really accepts a chief 
in our senee of the term.” He proceeds to descrilie as chiefs 
men given power by popularity, ■ leaders of public opiinion,” 
nominally the heads of clans. “ The (.'roveinineiit of every Xaga 
tiibe with whom I have had intei course is a piurely deniocra- 
tical one. ami whenever anything of public importance has to 
be undertaken, all the bluets (both old and \ oung) meet together 
in solemn conclave, ... as to any one single Chief 
e.xercising absolute control over his pei'ple, the thing is 
unheard of.'- Among the Luhupa^, according to I)r. 
Brown, Blown, each village formed a republic of its own, 
p. 3&. and tlieie were no principal chiefs. On the other 

hand he describes the IMao trilic, with its twelve villages, as 

jj- under one chid : fu.un each house tlie chief received 

iD.iini'int. basket ut rice. Mr. Jianiaur speaks of a tribe, 

-Jour. R. to the north-east of Manipur, who inhabited ten 
. villages all under one cldef. 

' That nominal hereditary village duel’s existed 
within the Xiigil village iiicTosure is evident ; but of the luiture 
ot their ottiee we are left much in the dark. Surer ground is 
reacheil when we turn to the funcUoim of the elected rulers. 

Elteti.iJ Jiii/i.rs . — The elected heads of the Xagas are called hv 
Johnstone. Sir dailies Joliiistoiie Ptomob^: he says that they 
*• Kxperi- remain in (.I'fice for yctiis and are greatlv le- 
Mamphr” spccted, though liahlo at anytime to be di-plai'c-d ; 
p 2 '^. they are in tlioory oiilv ^lore.-^.' Tour 

Jlac-kenzie, 01 ' live iiiiddle-ageil nieii who had earned a rejiut.uiou 
p. 401. wariiors guidoii to .some c-xteiit one of the eusteiu 

clans. The only constitiUtd authority lound hy Stewart among 
the Xagiis of Xorth Kachav was that of the council of eldeis 

^ Aitblie^on. Biodie. tjuotcd hy ButU'ix Sir A. Xorth-Fa-t 

Frontier of Beiimi'," p bh. Dalton. 1S72. pp 519 and sl2, speuk^ of the >'d<xis 
ea^j of the Do^unt^ river as ‘'divided into i^reat elans under heredilarv elneis 
\vlio appear to exeiei'C great ir.thieiu-e «.\er their ]>eoph>.‘' He inter-* ttoiu 
Sr 'u.irt tha»- Tve-t of Hie l)o\ani£ no eliiet*. are aeknuw le'f iied The pa>*aee in 
Dalton on p ‘M) a? to dnerilim; ]a)iity, leli^um, ai.-l eustdias require? u nmi) ui 
the author's '•peilin^ to be iiitelli^ible. A pu>>a 2 e in Mr. Aitche-'on’? “ Treaties 
is some-what at varuinee Mitli the in count of tiie SeurU in the " Assam Ceinu? 
IS'.H, aiul onnr-* to notice the Aneanu nominal but heredittir\ eluefs. He ?avs . 

L'uhke fh<' An^auns, Sernas, a».d Lliofa^. v\ho are lutt-nsely demoerntic* in 
their sO( ml eeoiioinv, many of tlie e.i-tirii Nana-* aiquar to aeknouleileo thi‘ 
aiHh.irity i>f Kaj i? uu-i minor chief'- aiiu-ne tlu-iu-el\es.” Aiteheson. ISbi. 
Yul. 1 , p. 2Jb. - Butler, quote. I by Mackcuzie, p. s6. 



172 


G. M. GoddEX . — XdgA aad utlirr 


■ivlio settleil petty dispute? aud property disagreement.?, and tl.e 
'tewart, moderate authority of a “ Gaoii Kiira ’'^ or village 
■■ Asiatic spikesmau, some elder appointed, not always for life, 

.society of a reputation tor superior wisdom or bv the 

none a, , ,1 , , , 1 1 1 ‘ • 

ls.55, sxiv, iiitlueiioe ot Wealth: hut as ne overlooked the exi.'t- 

p. eoa. enee of the nominal Angaiui chief? his observation 
mav liave lieeii at fault elsewhere. In the Ilengiiia tribe a 
village eouiieil of elders Settled all trivial offences, impo.?irig 
ypih, tines on the culprits. Among the Ang/anis the vil- 

li cxxix. Lige councillors settled uiaiters of war and revenge, 
and a liuiuistered tines for petty crime. The statement liy L'apt. 
H dis.ivd tliat the Khouhao or ’president of a clan council held 
otiicc igv hereditary right is noteworthy. 

The deuiocva.tic nature of the Ahig.i society is euiplia.sised in 
the latest account we liave. ilr. ilavis. in the Census I;e 2 iprt 
lor savs of the Ao tribe, “ each village amongst the Aos 

is a small rejiuhlie, and each man i? as good as his ueiglibour, 
.V. c E, indeed, it would I'C hard to find anywhere else more 
isOi, p. 2i3. thoroughly deiuoeratic communities. Headmen 
iP;//;/')do e.xist, hut their authority is very small.” The only 
.Vilgi tribe 111 which he tiiids headmen with any real piower is 
that of the Seuia. ^\hclse proiuiueut heretlicary village chiefs 
liave already lieeii notice 1. 

On the whole it may be coiielnded that the X.lgii goveruuieut 
coii'i'ts ill the decisions of a council of chosen uiembei’s of a 
village, who confer oil matters of puldic importance, and who 
adiiiiiiister punisliment f.ir crime ; and in the jiersons of 
hereilitary chief' who exerci.se .some rights and show some signs 
of primitive loyalty, Imt who take little active part in the 
I'olitical an I social admini.stration. It may be conjectured that 
in tcc.iiier (lays the e'.iiefs reigned su[)reme over each l:hd, by 
^iiiniitive right divine, and as des(jendauts of the ancestoi.s 
who,e name the khel' l)ear. and that as the kinds gathered into 
village enclosures the civil jsower of the chiefs declined before 
the iiraetictl iiet/ds of selecting the fittest aihdsers for the 
comiiiuiiity ; and that out of tlii.s decline one or two of the 
more potent .survived '.vitli partial power. But till we have 
more details, esjietdally a.s to the inter-kiiel lulcs of pa’ecedeiiee 
and as to the geuealogie.s of the nominal chiefs, tld.s mu-st be 
merely surmise. 

Lmf ml Avthurit ij. — X(.> record is forthcoming' of aiiv general 
authority, whether of an individual chief or of a leading village, 
.inmiig the hagil tiibes. The Iteport of 18.34 describes the 
Xfm.is tidiii the Xoitliern Kaehar to the extreme eastern point 
of Ass.am as having no C(jmmon bond of union: each village 

^ lur Gugii Lu:a, read burlia = an oM man. (llindi.) 



Fronder Tribes of Xcrth-Eust lacUa. 


173 


li.is a (]i-iuocratical po\ L-rnnieiit of its own, and each vconlil 
reii;!! distinct over its own liill and adjacent cultural ile lauds, 
but that alliances have been forced upon them by the power 
and concpiest of larger villages nr been souylit for to protect 
tlie weaker \illaees ayain-t the stianiper. The oonfederation (Fi 
thus formeil are liowever small, and are peiiertilly connected 
■S' ith some liowar or passage through the hills tcj Assam or 
Ava, the nionopolv cd the trade by which they endeavour 
to Secure for theniseh’es.” 


S"ried lii'hs nad F iinUii . — The social rules and penalties by 
vchifh iiniividual life in a Xilgfi village is regulated include! 
]ii'oliibi!ii)ns to niarrv within a man’s own /,//<■/; among the 
c-astern tubes, according to Dalloii. a piulubition ti' many until 
a man bad won the right to have his time elaborately tattooed, 
a right not granted till be bad taken a luinmii scalp or skull, 
or shared in some exja-ditic.iu in whiili scabis or skulls were 
taken: a stringent ijbligatiuu to pel form the duties of blood 
feud, a murderer being liable to puni'hnient at the hands of the 
( .insaini iinJ surviving I'ehitive.s inanv years after the deed; a 
Li.luii)as.) painisliuient of death to the man for infiingemeiit of 
the marriage law ; and tines for theft (for which offence in one 
, , tribe death miglit be intiieted if the thief were 

*■ '■ caught red-handed and for petty off'eiice.s. 

The means tbr the jirevention of crime within the Xfiga 
connnurdties in the case of tlie Angfani trihe, and doubtless 
in others also, fall into two dicisioms. tliose offenees liable to 
immediate piinisliiiieiit by tlie band of the aggrieved jiersoiis ; 
and those adjudged by a council of elders. Murder comes 

Mil's cxlii tategovy ; “the relations of the 

‘ ‘1’ murdered pterson instantly, if ]iossible, spiear the 
murderer without reference to the council of edders.” In case 
of infringeinent of the inairiage law tlie injitred hushand 
snearecl the offender “on the tiist opportunity,’’ it may be 
inferred without refeivncc to any council. The! Is and other 
f)etrv otfences on the other hand were disposed of by the elders, 
who iinjiosed a fine and re.storation of the piroperty or its 
equivalent. Unfortunately this distinction of offences liable to 
individual justice, and tliuse dealt with by the council, is only 
mentioned in one Keport : more knowledge on this fioint is 
mneh to he desired. The penalty for iiifringetneiit of the 
marriage law was death among the ^lao, Maraiii, 
and Luhufia* tribes ; among the latter the woman 


Brown. 


' Tho fullest aocoiint we liare of the Liil’iina Xaea takes tfie T.uliupas to be bnt 
a bnitu-]! of the ■' Tt’»i'khnl ” tribe, ’ihi? ;i« enur t v a? wntien in 1S73. and 
guiTurtlie preference to !Mr Pamant’'* 1 -ter elas-^ificaiion all (U '^eri}'t itms of 
Tunkhui? and Tangkools will be inserted ht-re a-* apj 1\ mg to the Luliapa tribe ; 



174 


G. ^1. Godpex. — Xdija and other 


ilao and 
ila'-aiii. 

Brown. 


was never taken liaek I'v tlic injureil Imsbaml. X.ia.i punisli- 
rnent.s for theft inclmleil death, heating, and tines; on the other 
hand in two trihes it was of oialinarv oecniTenee 
and not considered di.soraceful. Lieut. Stewart in 
his aceor.nt of the X.iuas of Xorth Kaehar finds the 
chief social restraint in the ‘'ystem of hluod feud, a 
sv^ti-ni which seems to have penetrated the whole social 
stracture. His n/cotint niav he somewhat e.x'am-terated, and 
may fail to take into ccmsideiatiou the ohliaatiuns of savaee 
relioiuu. but it is of value as showinn the inipre.Ssiou made on 
an observer ly the X.loa communities fiftv years ayo ; and 
also for 'liowinc;' hotv thoroughly these communities were 
actuated I'V the reuse of kinship. After speaking of the Xaga 
intense feelina for I'rvenee. a revenue catried tc. extreme lenutlis 


stf.ont, for even tiitling offences, he says, This feeling i.s 
p. (Jotc at, it ccaitiued to individuals, hut taken up between 
communities, and (jften by paitie.s in one and the same com- 
nnini''y. Is tliere a cpiariv-l iietweeii two Xau-is lA ditferent 
villages, the dispute inevitably i.-au.se.s bloodshed, and a feud 
is established lietween the villages of the two (Hsputants, 
which ncithing will assuage, and which, in time as advantage 
otiers, will tiinl issue in some dreadful massacie. The Xagiis 
ate e.xcHedingly tieaclieious in enmitv, and brook no insult. 
An insult given, it is a ]’ciitit c.)f honour to luive hluod — and 
hlciod shed l.iy one partv calls for a like stream on the part 
of tile other. ^Mien anv dilterence occtiis hetwec-n two men 
of the srime village, win. h is rarcTy the case, each individual 
has his paity w ho cling to him and take up Ins rptanvl, not 
hy anv me, ins fiom a s.-mse of justice, hut from relationship — 
and a ci\il war eii'iies . . .” The result of this system 

tsiecvart found to be a reluctance to enter into ([uarrels which 
mtailed eonserpiences -o di'astrons. and hence a Society '' living- 
in gc-noml pe.ice and lir.nestv.’' He compares tlie action of 
the law of revenge as an etlicient deterient among the clans 
of the .Scotch Highlands some l.oU veais hefoie the date cjf 
wii'diig. 

The restraint of lile governed hy inexorahle Mood feuds 
was mitigated among these Xorth Kaehar Xiig/is by a ipiaint 
custiini. At 't.ited viini/s, once or twice a year, the whole 
village ,-idjourned to sonic concenient place, and a general mele'e 
took pi, ice. everyone fighting [or his own band. Xo weapons 
Were Used, but severe biuisc-s and scratches resulted, vet these 


if further -knonliaire Uiows that the Toiihliuls of Pr. Brown anil the Tatukm.Is 
of ,\[ajor itiCuhiii h are nut '•j uou^nious with the Tanakhol siibilivision i>t the 
Lnhupis of Mr p.imiiut, the error nay perhaps be pardoned in Tiev\ of tiihal 
perple.eities recorded in apparently phonetic spelling. 



Frontier Tribes of North-East India. 


175 


Ste^irr, never gave ground for a quarrel, “ wliereas at other 

p. 610. times the lifting of a hand would lead to a blood 

feud.” This ex(;ellent system atlVirded vent tor iirivate grudges. 

Marriaijr. — If the Xaga rules providing for individual 
punishments were stiingeiit, the rules that regulate a tribes- 
man’s marriage are no le-s distinct. The elaliorate and leiigthv 
forms observed by the Angami at the present day will l.ie found 
fully de.scrilied in the account of that tribe ; a central feature is 
the repeated eating together of bride and bridegroom, doubtle-'S 
the coutirming act of union b)etween them. Among the 
Luhupas if the omens (taken by Indding up a fowl and 
Brown, observing how it crossed its leg') were favourable, 
p. 40. parents or friends proceeded to arrange the pre- 

liminaries. (!)n the marriage day two dogs, two dad-, and 
liquor were presented by the patents of the bridegroom to thn.-e 
of the bride : and the bride’s father then killed a pig which was 
eaten in the hou.se of the bridegroom's parents. Atlei marriage 
the bridegroom lived for a few days in the hon>e of the briile's 
parents, after whi'di he was conveyed to his own Imuse, and 
another feast of d(.ig,s and fowls ended the proceeding-i, A 
Viride-price was given for the wife. The Luhu].as wme said to 
be conspicm.ms for the aimiunt of fiee will excii ised ( presum.iblv 
by the young couple) in their marriage arraiigeiiients. The 
Stewart, Xdga marriages cif Xorthern Kai.har included a 

p. 014. pu-eseut to the family of the bride, and a fc-a-t to the 

whole village; the village in leturn built a luiU'e for the iiewlv 
married conp)le. 

Ill the Heir.'.iiia tribe the consent of the girl was ofitained as 
Mills, well a^ that of her parents, she having a light to 

p. cxxTiii. refuse; the hridegi’oom according to Ids means gave 

fowls, dogs, and spirits to the \Mrcnt3 of the giil -elected; on 
the (hiy of his marriage he gave a grand fea.st to the whole 
village, they' in return being obliged to pre-ent the pair witlt a 
iiew' house in tiie village. Dalton desciihes the more Eimtein 
D.ilton, Xdgas as manning comparatiiely late in life, a 

p. 41. neces-sary conserinence of the tattoo eomiition already 

noticed; there wa.> also a bride-price-’ which often invol\-e'd 
file youtli in servitude, at tlie end of which he was provided for 
and set up by his father-in-law. A eurious maniage omen 
occurs in the modern prractiee of the Mong-eii hraiich of the 
An tribe. If a man's propo.sals have been favour.il dv received, 
after thirty days the engaged couple go on a trading 'e.\p>eilitioii 

' The wording of Ihe Eeport i- ragiie, but prcsuiuiiblv it is the vilLnTe ,nul 
not tlie parents vrbo supply tlie liou-e. ' ° 

A. C I’.., Is91, ' The recent '• .\.-s:im Census Eeport" nientinns tliat a nife- 

pp. 'UT, 24S. price is paid uuio: g the Lhota and Soma 



176 


G. M. Goddex . — and other 


f jr twenty days ; if a fair profit he niaele tlie omen is "ooJ anil 
A. C. E, the mai'riay,e arrangements are procee.leil with, Imt if 
_ the results are niifavuurable the iii.iteli is at once 
IsOl, p. 24o. i,tf_ About three months later, as soon U' 

the house is re.niy for her reception, t’ue uirl is escorteil to her 
hueoaiurs hod'o by all her lelatioiis and Irieuils. “A feast is 
yiveii on that ilty, both at her house and at the house of hei 
hu'liamr.' people.'’ For ilie first .six niulits after a woman goes 
to her hu>:j, aid's hou^e. six men and -^ix women slpep in the 
house with the newly niarrieil couple, the men. iuoludino the 
bridegTooia. sleeyii.ig together, tlie wouieii .-'leeping with the biide 
It is of these Aos that we have a very recent account of what 
appears to be a suivival of primitive marriage us, me. ]\Ir. Davis. 
I>eputy Coianiissioner of the Ahtga Hills disnict. from whose 
re]iort the f.illowing description is i.tiicited. was not aware of the 
existence of similar l.•u.stollis among any other triiie in that district. 
The custciiiis take place a: the second of tlie tliiee chief festivals of 
the year, a festival held in August before the eoiuiueuceiiieiit of 
the liarvest, and they fall iiitci two parts. “ The fir.'t of these,” 
Mr. Davi.s s.ivs, ••is the custom during the tlnee davs the 


A C. E., 
IS'Cl, p. 244. 


festival la.sts of liaving ‘ tugs-ot-war ’ between the 
young men and unmarried girls of each khel. The 


ropes used are thick jungle creei'ers of gieat length. The object 
of the gills is to pull the rope right outside the boundaries of 
the khel. This tiiey are .seldom alhiwecl to do, the young 
men generally pi.iuiicing down on the rope and dragging it 
b.iek before it has l.ieeii taken clean out of their ground. 


After dark the ropes are dropped, and the second portion of 
the fe/;(</.s7e biegius. The girls form into circles, holding hands, 
each khel on its own ground. They then begin a monotonous 
chant, at the same time circling slowly round and round. 
This dancing and singing go on for liours. its nionotonv being 
only interrupted by what may he called raids bv the vouug 
iiieu troiii a liitibreut khel. These come round with lighted 
toiches, and having ]iicke<l out the girls they consider most 
pleasing, proceed to carry them off hy force. Such .seizures, 
howeser, lead to notlnng worse than drinking, the girls so 
carried oft being obliged by custom to stand the vouug men free 
drink.s.” 


J{ idvirs. — iduws are allowed to marry again in the Lhota 
A. C, E., and Ao tribes. In the latter if they marry before a 
ivji, p. 2 lo year iui.s elapsed a fine is imposed; the rule witli 
* regal d to widowers is the same. Semn widows are 

allowed to remarry. The Report of 1S.54 says that Xagii widow.s 
ili'.h, livfd in hou.ses of their own, built for them by the 
p ciixii. villagers. 



Fi’ontier Ti'ihes oj Furth-Fuat hidni. 


177 


A. C 
Iti'Jl, p. :i39. 

Mills, 

]), t-sliv. 

A. C. R , 

pi. 215. 

Rrown, 
p. 40. 

A. C. R . 


Fli'oirc . — llivorce socuis to have Leeu resulted to more or les.i 
fieipueiitly Ly the Xilyti tribes; aiiioiii;' the Aipitami the comjieii- 
^ sation to liusband or wife varies vith the cause of 
divorce, and an old report of this tribe .states that in 
some eases a divorced wuiiiaii mieht live in a house 
by herself and marry again. Among the Aos a 
woman a ho has been divorced for infidelity may not 
le-mairy witliout paying a cousideiable line to her 
former husband. With the Lnhupa.s divorce was 
allowed, ■■'but seldom re-sorted to on account of its 
gieat expenses.” The pre.seut Lhota usage is of less 
interest as the tribe seem.s to be placing itself under 
18 ‘ji. pi. 2 A 8 . administration ; marriages are desciibed as 

made early and as almost entirely matters of arrangement, and 
divorce cases are said to be veiy common in con'cipuence ; 
numerou.s ea,5es fi.ir the recovery of maniagc expenses from 
runaway or divoieed wives are brought before the divisional 
officer at ’\^'oklla. Among the Seimis, women wlm leave tlie’i 
.4. c. R , bu.sbands merely because they do nut like them have 
lt>9l, pi. 247. to repay their marriage price. Sliould they marry 
again v ithout doing so a claim would lie against their new 
husbands. A curious result of X;ig;l divorce is given b\' 
.Tolmstone, dallies Johnstone; “.Divorce can be easily 

1 > 33. ol'itained when there is an etjual division of goods 

Often a young man takes advantage of tiiis, and marries a lieli 
old widow, and soon divorces lier, receiving half her pioperty, 
vlien he is in a position to marry a nice young girl.” 

I’uhiijaiiiij ihiil /((/;•//.— Xiigii usage as regards polygamy 

Brunii, seems to have varied. It was occasionally practised 
among the Liilmpa Xbigas, and in rare instances 
many vives weie kept. Under the heading of 
“The Xag.is of Upper As.sain,' .Dalton wrote, ■' The 
A'llgiis confine tbemselvos to one wife.” At the 
pieseiit day the Aos and Angamis do not practise 
the Lbotas }>ermit it, but it is only in use aiiiung 
the rich ; the Senuls allow it, but do not as a rule practi'C it 
e.xeept in the case of headmen. 

d'lie Xiigii Iribe.s furnish some evidence on the relation of the 
lespcctive numbers of men and women to polcandiv. In 
(li'c-ussiiig this subjeet ^Ir. Gait, in the recent Assam Geiisim 
llepoit, sa_^s_ ■•until very recently fenuale infaiitieiile vas 
yiiacUseil amongst several of the Xiig.l tribe-., and tlicie Mas lu 
comcipueiiLe a great deficiency of women, but polyaiidix' ucWl 
le.siilted from it.”^ 


43. 

n.ihoii. 
pi. 41. 

A. C. K , 
IS'Jl, pl]i. 

239. 215 S':q. 
]><ilygamy ; 


' Galt : “Assam Cmsus Eepiort, IsOl, " p\ 120. 


VOL. .X.XVI. 


X 



178 


G. M. Goddes . — ^ijiia awl otlu r 


A. C. R , 
isiu. 

R.O'.vn and 

A. C. K , 
H91, p. 249, 


Ch'ihl uau'i'aiijt . — The prujM'rtinu ot' child uiaiiiaut- i' exceed, 
iuL;ly low aiueiii;' the Ao and .iiie'dniii ti'ibe.s ; the 
Lulmpii'. and Xa^cG ut Xuilh Ivaeliat were deseiihed 
as not pei’iiiittiiiLi: mairiaye niider a;4e. ami the latte! 
not till the Oeniple Wele able tit Set up house on theil' 
own account ; the Lhot;i t;iils are eenenddy ni;;riieii 
when thiileen or fourteen yeam old. 

Among the hill iiibes of tlie Abiga Hill di-trict it is stated, 
that imuiondity before lua.iiiage is usually within the /./o/. 
A. C. R., that is between persons who could not marry in 
isjl, [.250. any case : the nioialityof the tribes in this res[iect 
not deseiibed a.s high. Infringement of the mairiage law wu' 
Blown, pp. said to be rate among the Luhupas and among the 
4oar.d3j. (IHanipuri) Ang/imi women. 

llol.iinson speaks of the Xilgjis as liaA'ing only one wife, "to 
whom they ;ire .'tionglv attached and of whose chastity the}’ 
appear \ery jealous. Tlie Women . . . are said to be dis- 

tinguished for the correctness of their behaviour.’ ^ The position 
of the wile among the more Easterii Xagas was >goocl, according 
to Haltoii : she had to work haid, but was i.itlierwi'e well treated 
and .share-! with her husband in ;dl festivities and soci.il amuse- 
ments. 

Birth cvituiiis. — We have not niui.-h record of birth customs. 
iSeclitsiou of the mother is noticed among the Aiigiimi tribes, and 
Brown, pp. with the Luliupas a custom of ]ilacing rice in tin- 
:’,t and 39. luuuth of tlie llewly born chihl lecalls a Kuki U.sagr-. 
With the Luhupa.s 011 the l.iirth of a child, whether boy or giil, 
fowls Were sacrificed and the women only of the village treated 
Brown, to liquor. The child immediately after hirth hadi 

Pl> 39-40 chewed lice placed in its mouth, and was immersed 
111 almost hoiliiig water, a tieatmeiic ".supposed to leiidei the 
eliild hardy, and jireveiit it in after-life from .siitferiiig from 
paius afiout the hack ami loins.’" The mutla-r w as w rapped in 
■ lOt water IjLinkets till faintness oiisued ; this was I'lpe.ited two 
or tliiee times, and im t'm third d.iy the v.oiu.in was allowed to 
go .ii.ilut as usual. 


A ith the Luhupas, the eai-boriiig of ehlldieu w,is ufteli iloue 
Uro.Mi, eullectivcly, on ueenuiit of the gie.il exipeuse ill 


10 

feast 

iiig iuvohed ill. 

•lb 1 

.11 



i 

It 

tw'iiis Were 

' hoin till' A'.ig.'is 

; h. 

'It 

l it <idv 

m lob- to lie' 

ri 1 IV 1 le.ti , 

A-r 

,m Ad, ini'll 

its, a ciiid'iig 1 


iU 

otti, i, 

d I'-Jioll ol 

LWS-'.i 

Kusm 

a.' Aim 

mg the Abig.i eg 


1 

lied 111 

the .'s;b',ig,i 

r distiict 

1 S 7 S 

tint 

year. " The on 

ly 

t'H 

S'! of I 

lit', lest. !!' e 

xhi’iiitiic.; 

^ Imj'j’iHSun's ■ A- 

■'■1111 ' p Bs.i ?.[. 

i'.- 


G ill. .'We 

' !it ‘i-.i'll V m.ii 

:is 

it-tri'i 

Atigs .gt ihg ” 

' -X nCttM-,’ 1 e . ii; 1 

•• 5 U ) 

• ill- 

■ 1 ' N J . 

.i r, 

,G -Jlu, 

A,igj 

• A ljAGlU.il 

Tu! i.i, p le 








Irodtur Trilns oj ^o/'th--Eo-sf huha. 


179 


thetenneiou? peisisteiice of savage customs, was that of a Xaga 
I’ll the Youiigia tiibe named Xagplia, who was tried fur exposing 
and ahandoiiing- his infant ehihlreii. This man liad lived for 
twelve years in tlie plains. He had been confined in the .Sibsfigar 
Jail as a politiiad otfender, and after his release had .settled 
di'wn in tlie distriet, woiking at Jorhat as a sweeper, and hail 
marrieil a Xagii woman. His wife having given liirth to twins, 
tlie paieiits promptly threw away the newly-hoin infants in the 
jungle, according to the usual practice of the Xiigas, among 
vlioni it is considered most unlucky to have two at a birth 
. . . . the father was much surprised at his conduct being 

considered in any way reprehensible.’’^ 

This incident, and the custom reported to he ]uactised by the 
Xiigas, is analogous to a Kafir custom of killing one of twins, 
done among the Kafirs in order to preserve tlie life of the parents, 
especially of the father: the Kafir belief heingthat the injurious 
influence supposed to be exerted by twins, both of whom are 
allowed to live, may aftect tlie father or mother, and if tl'c 
influence does not kill eitlier of the parents, the twins will ki.l 
each otlier by inducing mutual disease.- 

Vtl/uije itijviiy ludl and ijvurd han-M .. — Before leaving 

the Xilgil social customs one prominent feature of their village 
society must be noticed. Tliis is the cluiinj.im institution 

ill some resiiects .similar to tlie haclielois’ hall of the Melanesians, 
which again is compared with tlie luhil, and other juiblic halls, 
of the IMalav Archijielago. This hnildmg. also called a Moratiij, 
was used tiu' the doul'le purpose of a sleeping jdace for the 
young men. and as a guard or watch house for the village.'^ 

The custom of the young men .sleeping together is one tliat is 
eonstautly noticed in aecoiints of the X;lga tribes, and a like 
cu.stoin prevailed in some, if nut in all cases for the 
D.uiiant. girls. Mr. Itamant, in a ]iaper on Xortli Kacliar, 

■■Calcutta .--ays of the Xagtis, - oidy veiy young children live 

itcviciv,^ entirely with their parents’’; the }ouiig unmarried 

II. 1.^0. and girls of tlte Luhupti Xiiga.s wore ih-'; : ii ed 

as .sleeping' in separate lionses a]>art : tinioiig the Serna X.’igas 
Brown, ut the present day, bachelors usu.dly sleep together 

1' in sejiarate houses but these are like tin? oidinarv 

(' K, \ illaee houses, and aie only used bv the \ oung men 

is 'i.p. 21, iiiglir. and till' nniminied eiils sleep togetlier by 
ri itra ami fours in tiie front i oia}'artment of ceitaiu houses. 
Mr. iJaiiiaiil 111 rile paper mentioned abu\ e, says : ■ the women 

A riii'.i!n?trn*it>n Kfpnrt. ’ 1^7'^-'.^. 11 I> . p. j 1 

■ L'alldwaN. ’ ouurnai of rl e A >ii iiropoh'iju il JhIv, 

}>. 

^ .\i t ui tiLt^ 'o Ste-'Hit = voung iiien (p. G13K 

X 2 



180 


0 . M. CloDHEX. — Nd'jii nad other 


II- liave also a house of tlit-ir own called the deklii 
^CiY-iUa "''here tlio unmarried girls are supposed to 

Ee-riew," toI Ih’e " ; ill au otlicial re])ort of a tour in the North 
ixi ; and K;ieliar Hills in ISTo, he uote.s of a large Naga- 
"^lY'i'oYr in^' ’ ' ^ saw a I'ekhi chang here for 
Nortli I*’’--! thiie. All the unmarried gills sleep there 

Cachav,” at iiiglit : hut it is deserted in the day. It is not 
lb, 0 - 6 . laueh ditterent from any ordinary house.'’ 

The young meu’> hall is variouslv de.serihed and named. An 
article ill the “ •Tounial of the Indian Archipelago,” 1848, says 
that among the N.igiis the "bachelors’ hall of the Davak village 
is found under the name of Mooiiug. In this all the bovs of 
the age of nine or ten years upwards reside apart. In a 
repoit of lSo4, the monings” are described a.s large buildings 
Mills, g'eiierally situated at the piincipal entrances, and vary- 

p. c-xui. jjj number according to the .size of the village; 

“they are in fact the main guarddiouse, and here all the young 
immarried men sleep : in front of tlie iiiorung is a raiseil 
platform as a look-out, commanding an extensive view of all 
aiipioaclies, where a Nag.i is alway.s kept on dnt}' as a sentry ; 
in each Honing is a large scooped out tree with a longitudinal 
opening at the top, extending nearly from end to end and about 
three inches wide, this is used fjr sounding the alarm and col- 
lecting the wairiur.s together, or on other grand occasions, it 
is struck with a wooden mallet.” . . . “ In the iNIorungs 

are kept the skulls carried off in battle, the.se are sirspended by 
a string along the wall in one or more n.iw s over taicli other. 
Ill one of the Morungs Cif the Changute village, Captain llrodie 
Counted one hundred and thirty skulls, . . . bc.-^ides these 

there was a large liasket full of broken pieces of skulls.’ ’ 
Captain H'drovil, from whose memorandum tlie .abiive is ipioted, 
speaks later of the ^lorung as the “hall of jimticf’' in which the 
Consultations of the chin council (already desciibcd) are held. 

Ihirty years ago, the d/o/voi'/, or liachelors' hou.se, of au 
bee . 1 . C. R., Ao village was described by (folonel Wooikhorpe, 
Is.n. p 212 . iij lij., Llepoi'tof the Survey Cperations in the Nfig.’i 
Hills for 1 ,s I 4— ."i,” as a large huilihng, divided into two jiarts 
by a low division; oim half, the young men’s sleeping place. 
Was lloorcd and contained a health, the other half was 
untloiiied. The piincip.il uprights were carve'l with luge 
figures of men, ele[ihants. tigers, lizanls, &c., roughly paiuteil 
with black, white, and reddish hiowii. Aiiiingeil round the 
Walls Were skulk ot nieii oiul animals, ami 'kdful iiiiiiatiuiis 
ot the foiiner capaldo of pa.ssiug at a little distance for 

^ ‘‘JoinnAl cf tlio Iiitlidn Arelii|ip’a"o, 1S4S.” IT. p ‘J31- 
MiUs '• Kepdrt, ’ ciui 3 the pimctuutiou i-* left a? m ti e ordinal. 


JT/'Oiilti'i' Tribes uf ^ortli-Eiist Iivlui. 


181 


real skulls. “Tlie ridge of the monrtvj projects a few feet in 
front, and is ornamented with small straw figures of men and 
tufts of straw . . Xear the Mnroiuj would he an open 

shed in which stood the hig drum, fonneel of a liolloveed trunk, 
and elahoiately carved, generally to represent a buffalo’s head, 
]>ainted in front (■•after the manner of a figure-head of a 
sliip"), and furni'died witli a straight tail at the other end. 
The drum rested on logs, and was sounded liy the fall of a 
heavy piece of wood and by beating with clubs. ^ 

A. C. E , The ii((yrii mjs of another tribe, the Xaked’’ Xiiga, 

isji, ji. 210. liave been recently described as situated close to the 
village gate, and consist of a central hall, and back and front 
verandahs. In the large front verandali are collected all the 
trophies of war arrd the chase, ‘‘ from a man's skull dowrr to a 
inoidcey’s.'’ Along l.ioth .sides of the central Irall are the sleepirrg 
berths of the young ruerr ; the centre space, tbjored witlr massive 
plarrks, i.s left operr and used by the braves for tlieir dances. 

Fionr tlrese acccaints we see that tire Ahigi'i J/c/vo)// was used 
ns a sleeping place for the ymrng inert as a relic house for the 
oollectiou of skulls taken in haltle and of animal skulls trrkoii 
in the cha^e, as a dancing-place for the •• hra\-es,” as a council 
hall ill Mliich the clan council met for consultation, and as a 
guard-house . 

.‘sjieakiiig of tlie Mao and iMuram tribes, l>r. llrowir says, 
Ei-oHii. ■' tlie young men never sleep at home, but at their 

p. 31. cluhs, where they keel) tl'tif aims always iu a state 

of readiness." This eluh aspect of the institution is well 
shown ill Mr. Daiiiant's account of it as existing among the 
^ jj- Xiigiis of Xi.iith Kacliar. At cmlIi end of the 

r)-n[i;int. village,- gi-nerally on the liighest point of land, 

CmIl-uiu stood a ihlhu <7)));)//, ainl if the village was large 
Et-MO'v, tliere «as occasiomdly a tliiid in the middle ; the 
bniliiing was a kiinl of guard-house, where all' tlie 
young ineii of the place kept wateii at night, and spent tlie 
greater pait uf the day. It was built like the other houses, but a 
good deal larger and higher: in front were raided se, its wliere the 
greater pait of tlie vill.ige asseinhled in the evening and drank 
rice-beer, while the young men praeti.sed running and jumping 
nnd putting the stone, «if widen tliey were verv fond. Inside it 
was fitted up with benelies in two .s)puues, and in the middle 
of each a tire cv as cmstantly l)inning. ll'e.tpoiis were ranged 

^ R. ^V. AVootllLorpo, Siir\i’y Keport, .lira 1S71-5, nuotetl in A. C. E » 

1S91, p. 2t2. 

- Tlie reeent Assam Censu- Eepoit. IS'.tL,” ^i-.s of t’le Lli-Ta Xa^a-;. the 
A[orant;s or ba.-hel huti>es are eoii>piL*uau-- ar eaeh end of the vilhom/' 

“ All i> doubtless an error for the night guard set troiu among the voiing 
men of tlie \ il'age. 



IS'2 G. il. GoDDEX. — Xi'iiji'i. UmJ Otht'r 

rcrtiiul tile walls, and fastened to the rahers were innnineralile 
skulls of liutfaloes. nietnas, ainl wild hoars which liad heen 
killed in the chase or sacrifieed : from the i afters Ihuil;' a 
hasket full of driukiii^u' cups and ladles. In the lark-ground 
there were "enerally a few pip.s, and two old women peipetu- 
all\’ grinding rice flour for the manufacture of leer. The 
deklia chaiig was aho used ns a gue,st house for fiiendly 
stranuers. In this paper, perhaps referring only to Xorrh 
Kaehar. Mr. Idamant speaks of the dekha chaiig as the great 
institution of a Xfiga village. Among the Ang/mii the custom 
for the young men to sleep in a liouse or houses apart was 
Continued for one year after marriage : and among the iMarams. 
Brown, according to I)r. Brown, "the mirried men even 
I' 81' slee]' at the re'orts of tlie haclielors. a custom re- 

sulting from their seii'e of iiiseeurity from attack.” 

With the A'.i^ at the present day the cu'tom seems to iie 
A. C. R . becoming ohsi.'ileie : sleeping houses are provided for 
1801. p. 243 hachelois. hut aie seldom used except by small 
hoys. r’nmaiTied gilds sleep Iw two.s and three' in houses 
otherwise empty, or eBe tenanted hy one ohl wi.iinaii. 

The analijgy hetweeii the DdJin Ch'iaij. or JAev'uc/, of the 
Xtigas and the men'.s hall of the ilelanesians is too close to 
lie overlooked, and in view of the .signific.tnce I'f all evidence 
eoncerniiig the corporate life of early communities a descii]i- 
tion of tie latter is here nuoted. I am awaie of no recorded 
instance of the women’s lionse, other tlian these Xligd examples, 
(..firinoton " iMehinesian groups it the rule that 

■ iie'n-' ' there is ill every village a huilding of puhlie character 
le-inr-." where the men eat and spend their time, the young 
!'• men sleep, strangers are entertained : where as in 

the Solomon T.'lands the canoes are kept ; where images aiv 

seen, and from which women are generally excluded 

and all these no dnubt correspond to the and other public 

ludls Ilf tlic Malay Archipelago.’'' 

1 inh rirhiiil Pri'pi'rtii in Lmnl n nd Inhj'ritu in'e. — Individual 
property in land i' rocngnised among the Ang.imi of the Xag;i 
[nfrair. IlilU distiict, aiid a married woman i.s allowed the 
Angami'. possession of y.rojieity in land in her rovn right ; 
the sons receivi' their share of the father's landed ]iropeity 
at marriage ; unmarried sons receive equal shares after the 
t.ither.' death. ^ A very different system wa> olKcrved among 
the Lnhupas, On the eldest .sou of a family marrying, the 
parents were “obliged to leave their house with the ivinaiiidor 

^ Coilrinsiton, '■ ^relanesitins/' p 102. 

‘ A, C K . ISOl, ])]>. 24(1 and 250. The Report do es not make it quite rlear 
wliether ll e equal '•luires refer to luinled or otliei* pr*»pertr 



Ft'un t icr T I’lhciy uf F\L>i’th~F(ist Tudw. 


183 


P,rcw;i of tiieir family, the son who had married takinct twn- 
j Lul'upas), thii'iis of the parents' property, not only of the liou'e- 
iiold, hnt of his father's fields, itcf’ Occasinnally 
the parents were recalleil and allowed to remain for some time, 
hut eventually they had to leave and the property was edaiiimJ 
and divided as above stated. When the parents were well off 
they priwideil a house hefoiehand. The same process miyiit 
he lepeated ayain and ayain as the sons married, Lait according 
to usual Lustorn the parents might return to the house of the 
eldest sou, after several repetitions. 

iLCuliocli, MeCulhscli .says of the “Tungkool” that, ■'on the 
lip. 6.; ,t ns. marriage of his son. tlie father hecomes a per-mn of 
socoiidary importance in the house, and is obliged to remove 
to the front part of it.” b)f tlie T.uhupa.s he says the parents 
and family liad to move from their house on the marriage of 
hutli the eldest ami second sons. 

.A,, C. R., The folhnviiig in.ite given hy Mr. I)avis. in the 

istn. p 2.50. recent A^snn bmisns Ih'^port. concerning the present 
state of property in land in tlie Xfigii Hills district, deserves 
rpiotation iii full: ■' Trivate richC' of pro|.ierty in land are the 
rule amongst all the tiilies m thm district, except the Kukis. 
Mikirs, and plains llengnui', be., the migratory trihes. That 
private rights ol property in laud are not i-ecogni.sed amongst 
these tribes is due to the fact that thev are in no way pre.'Sed 
for land, the villages being .small and uncut jungles extensive, 
^Vlieii,_ however, we come to tribes like tlie Angitiiiis. Lhotiis, 
and Aos. who live in permanent and large villages, and 
ainong.st whom laud is none too plentiful, we liml that the 
rights of individuals to property in land are well known and 
well recognised, and the rnle^ as to inlieritance and p.rrtition of 
such ]iropeiry settled by strict cnstouiary law. Amongst the 
Aiigiliiiis land, specially iiennaneiit terraced eiikivation, is 
freely sold and honght, there being no more difKcnlty in 
sdling a terraced held than in selling a pig or a cow. Amongst 
the other tiilies tlie cn.stom of letting out land is laroely 
[a’acti'C'd. a rent varring from Ks. ;; to Ks. .I for .a field (j/tihn) 
large enough for the support of a honsehuld heiirg the astral 
amuirnt charged for the U'C of land for two year.s.''^ 

G It. XoTE — .An extraordinary village rule is mentioned iiy 

lAiiiiaiit, Air, D.iin.int. in sjie.iking of the Nagas of the Xorihern 

“ C'.dciiita Kaeliar Hills . ‘‘ Kacli vdl.ige ha.s rt' own bound.uies, and 

Kevii'H. they exirvt rent from any other X'aga.s who may venture to 
vul. l\i : and [jhum] within their limits, though thev do not niterfeie 

Report on with Kookies [Kiikts] or C'aeharies." In a Eeport of 1876. 
* j-’l’l ’ on a tour in the North Kachar Hills, Mr. Datnant .s.ivs 

, L' - ' *'that among the Naga.s e.ach village oidv ihums within its own 
l8/n, = o . . J 

’ ' limits. 

' ‘'Assam Census Report, ISOl.” p. 2.70 



1S4 


G. M. Goddex . — ‘iiul lAh'i' 


Slii>-rri /. — "We Iiave Liit little information a.^ to tlie existence 
of slavery amonit the Xfigas. Xinong the Aos it is said to 
A. C E , have been imiveisnl. .'^laves xvere not infrequently 
1S91, p. liAt. i,y one village to another to make up a quarrel, 
and as a kind rif compensation for heads taken l)y them. 
“Slaves jaiid in this svay were invariably slaughtered by the 
village which received them, as an offering to the spirits of the 
men on tlieir side who hail been killed.” Female .slaves were 
lira allowed to marry or have children, and are not tattooed. 
Slavery was unknown atnong one or more tribes accoidiug to 
Brown, pp. I'r. Brown. He de.scribes the Luliiipas as violently 
30 ami ae. opposed tc it. An instance of tlieir hatred of the 
practice is given in the action of a father who being unable to 
release his cbildren who bad been captured in resistance to the 
State of IManipur and sold as slaves, came down the hills, slew 
them lioth. and carried away their heads. 

0,1 fits . — The value of a Xag;i oath is variously estimated. 
A C. E , The oath of the Seimis of tlie pre.sent day is said to 
isoi, p. 247. he untiustwoithy ; this trihe are also accused of 
having had a cli'- regard h.ir the law of hospitality ainuuiitiiig to 
the killing of a well received gnest, when off his guard, without 
(4. ir. compunction. On the other hand iMr. Daniant, 
Pan luit-, while on tour lit 18To-t), was much struck with the 
extreme respect shown for an oath hy some Xorth 
Kaehar XTigils: tlie people of a ceitain village declining to 
accpjit an oiler made hv another village of meeting their demands 
in full, on condition of the claim being made on oath, liy reason 
of inability to state quite exactly the amount of damage done.^ 

Till hr ,, — Tile use of tattoo among the Xagas is another of the 
iiuiiiy ]ii lints on which we have just enough information to 
make us wish for more. An incident mentioned liy Mr. Beal, 
writing in BSfg'. indiiMtes that the tattoo was a mean.s hy which 
iieigldioiiring tribes, .siqiarated by the diversity of languages 
which olitained among them, recognised one another: “When 
once with a number of Banpar.is [Xagas] on the road, a large 
]iaity of Xagas passed, and as neither jiaity .spoke, I asked wlio 
they Were. I avas pointed ont their hill, and rm asking why 
they dill nrit speak, they said they would not under.stand one 
another, illiis I thought a good ojipnitunitv to trv them, and 
told them to call them in X:ig:i and ask wdio thev were. On 
being called to, they all turned round, and stop]ied, hut said 
nothing; I then made them call again; hut to no pnrjiose, the 
other partv simply jahliered together in twos and threes, and on 
calling them a tliird time as to where they were going, tliev 

' G. H. Pamant, “ Official Diary of Tour in Xortli Kacliar Hill?,” 1875-6. 



Friiiitor Tribes of Xorfh-Enst hulin. ISo 

f5houte(l out a lot of Xatr.! wliich my fellows could not make 
out. Both parties passed on, unahle to exchange a word, though 
living within a few miles of each other. A few words did pass, 
hut they were Assamese. I asked how they knew the men, 
and thev said ‘ hy their ak,’ or tattoo marks.”‘ The old records 
<if 1842-4 say that most of the tribes in that north-eastern part 
iraekenzie, of the Xiigil Country lying between the Bori Dihung 
p. 86. and Dikhu rivers had their face.s tattooed with dis- 

tinctive marks. 

A. C. R . Anuarg the Aos of the pre.sent day the men are 
1891, p. 213. not tattooed. The women are tattooed on face, neck, 
lirea>ts, arms, and legs. The tattoo on the face is slight and 
confined to four vertical lines on the chin: these are the same 
f(_ir both the t'hnugli and iMong.sen snli-divi.sions of the Aos.- 
The other tattoo marks are different f<ir either sub-division, the 
difference in pattern on the arms and calves of the leg being 
very noticeal ile. 

Besides the use of tattoo as a mark of a man's tribe, it was, 
as we have seen, the sign of a snceessful head-taking which 
G-. H. permitted a man to marry. Mr. Damant says of 

Dumiuit, the more Eastern Xhigiis that "most of the tribes 
Jour K tattoi.) ; the tattoo, ‘ ak' as it is called, not being given 
vol. xii, n s. e.xcept to men who have killed an enemy. 

Ileferring to Xag;i Hills usage Mr. I’eal speaks of social 
position as depending on tattooing, the tattoo being only won hy 
lainging in the heatl of an enemy ; the man who brought in a 
heailwas no longer called a bov or a woman, and could assist in 
Po'il Jour councils; it was said tliat he selilom went out again on 
Asiiiti.- .Sor . a raid. " Tlie head he bring-;, is handeil to the Bo’yah. 
Iieng.il. vol. -who confers the ‘ ;ik,’ or right of decoration by tattoo, 
xli. p. 20. .^ypj5-.p there is great feasting."’ All those who got 

heads won the ;lk on the face; tlm.-e who got hands and feet 
had marks accordingly, for the former on the arms, for the 
latter on the legs. ili-. Beal adds that no two tribes had marks 
alike, and some even did not tattoo the face. 

Tatto(j thus seems to have been the sign of full membership in 
thi^ tribe; not till a man had shown his efiiciency as a fighter 
might he wear tlu' tribal b.idge or take the position of a 
married man. 


^ S. K. Peal, ’’.Toiirr-al Asiatie of PeTJcal,'’ ili, p 2S. 

- Altliounh the tattoo is p.irtiiliy alike it may he notieed that the dialeets of 
tlie L’hun^li and Mon^sen are so dissimitar as to be practically different lan- 
g^uages. A. C. K., 1^91, p. 241. 



186 


(t. 'f. (4oriIiE\'. — -Vc'yt' itn(f cfht'j’ 


lii.Lit ,ir>y. 

>ijiiie Llear iniii ^ ot |iviiiiiLi\ e ritual uirl 6eliat eiiierue frniii 
tlir lueanre aei ciiinr.' wha-li aia at present oiir inily lecaiil of the 
lelieii’U I'f till- Xaua laae. 

llMt ivcoid i' iiir-i aaplate at every tin ii : oiiily one oliaerver 
givf > a iiaiiietl li't i>f e.'''!-- : ye.iily fe^tii'a!.-' aie }'a'^til hy with 
a liiietl' Wia-il . allt! -.aali elv all atteUipt lia-: heell lilaile to aillW 
at tile ei aivictii 111 ' vhiili iiinlerlie tlie active ritual of a people 
wlio.'t- liw-s ale loiiilitioueil hy their 'iippo'ietl lelatioiii^ with 
']iiiitual forces. 

h7(/<y /A /7a. — Thcic is little ei'ideiice as to whether the ^ae.is 
do cii do Hot hclieve in any sU]>reiiie deitv. 

A 1 elief in a supicife rreator railed Terhopfo or l\e}/enopfo 
-V. C. R , i' asLiihed. ill the Lite Assam t'ensus l;e[iiit. to the 
tsfu. p. liii, Aiip.'iiiii of the ].reseiit day, and twenty years apo a 
piartial if not ncneial Aimaiiii helief in a supreme henevoleiit 
deit}', who diwell oii ti.e liiohest hills, was recoided. Amom^ 

-r this nihc ^ii dames dohnstr'iie found a ' v.iluc 

Jfliji-toi ty in a K'Uetieeiit ^iipieiiie iu 

I> 3-. roniinoii with le.o't of the hill trilics with which lie 

Brown, acoiiaiiited. The Liihupas. aeeordina' to l>r. 

Piiowii. i'elicved, "ill one supreme deity, who is of a 
heiievoleiit dis] lOsitioii. and who iiihahit.s space. lloliiiisoii says 
of the Xaeils ■ They seem to liaie a peieeptioii that there must 
be SI line iiniveisid P ause to rvhom all thinys are indebted for their 
beiny. '1 liev appe.tr al'O to achnowledye a Divine I’ower to be 
tlu‘ Maker of the world, and the I)isposer of all events: Him 
tliey eaiioiiunate the (treat Spiiit. Their ideas of him. however, 
are taint and confused; and of his attributes, thev are entiielv 
iyiioianl.’’' ( Ill the other hand Stewart founil none aiiioiiy the 
;sf/'w,irr, taiious da-iries acknowledged bv the Aoith Kaeliar 
P- *^1"- Ally. is to whom creation was ascribed, "the' uiiiveise 

bciiin pre-e.\isteiit to their gods, ami leiiiaininy unaccounted for.' 
Fui'tb.er infoiniaiiiiii would ]iroliahlv show beliif in a distant 
tirst euuse, reim.ite from the all'airs of living iiieii.- 

1 A; //,//,'• fT'ii//.-,' I,/- — Xo iinceitaintv hangs over the 

X'liyri belief's in the p.;wcr of the unseen ayeiicies wlio cause 
siekiiess, aial give prosperitv, to who^e f.ivrur riches aie due, 
whose dwelliny i' in the uncut jungle, or rocks, cir water, liefore 
whf.se presence on a day ijf sacrifice all e\il spirits must he 

■ Kdihin'on, p HOft 

- Mr W. Crooke cuu>'KU'r’? that tliere may pos-^ibly be Vaisl nava intluon- e 
in any holief in a «inf;Ie supreme <U-ity amoni; any ot‘ these A'aga or Kiiki 
tribes 



Froiiilt:,' Ti tles nf Xorfh-Eud Indin. 


1S7 


driven fi’oiii the village, and who are challenged for the death of 
a tribesman with euises and war cries. 

Mills, 1S54, IMany god., or spirits, each with power to give 
p, exlii, prosperity and success, or to inflict sickness and 
calamitv, dwelt in the Angaini hills ; to these the people sacri- 
ficed cows, mithun ( wild cowl, dng.s, cocks, and lirpn-jr. 

The Xiigas of Xurth Kachar were characterised by iMr Damant 
as a very religions p'cople, doing nothing of inipor- 
taiice without sacrificing a fowl or pig, or ottering n]> 
some eggs or beer. "We are indebted to Lieutenant 
Stewait for a named list of the g'o<ls of this district. 


Ct. H. 

Dan' ant. 

" Calcutta 
"RcTICW,” 
vol. Isi. 


Stewart. peisoii ill their mythologv is ’ Senieo,’ the 

p. 611. god of riches, to whom all those who seek wealth 
make sacrifices.” He was supposed to infiiet sndden reverses 
of fortune ami sickness on tliose who having wealth diil not 
sacrifice to him ; large animals were reserved for liim. “ Kueh- 
impai” was tiie god of tlie harvest, as well as one pc'ssessing 
general influence over human atfairs : to him sacrifices were 
made of goats, fowls and eggs, niul prayers were nfibied for the 
prcsperity of the crop. Ammig the malignant deities " Ihipiaba ” 
had the first place ; to his di..]-,lea'ure all the misfortunes that 
may fall on men were ascril.ied ; ottering^ of dugs and pigs were 
made to appease his wrath ; in appoaraaee lie was supposed to be 
tierce and ungainly, witli one eye in the midst of Ifi.; forehead. 
I’upiiiba liad an assistant in a fierce filiiid god named ' Kangniha''; 
he was worshipped at cress roads where passers-by ],iled up his 
propitiatory offerings, geuerallyeoiisi^tiug of a few comiui m leaves. 
Stewart says tins is l,>ecause lie cannot distinguish the value of 
his offerings ; “when fowls are sacrificed to this god, a very 
small fowl indeed is selected, and placed in a htriji basket at th.e 
appropriate place. I'lie blind god pc/mg the size of the basket, 
takes it for granted that the coutcnts are oommensuvately Imlky, 
and deals his favours accordingly !"’ 

Brown. The Luhupas belies'ed in a deity of evil disposition 

P- ■^1- wlio resided hetweeii heaven and earth, and in whose 

hands was the power of death. < )f the lleiigiiias, the old Leport 
of 1334 tells us, “ Like other liiil tribes, they acknowledge the 
Mill-. power <jf a plurality of gods, and sacrifices of cows, 
p. cx.^Tiii. pjos fowTs are offered on all occasions." 

Tlie Aos of the present day are descrihed as having an 
.\. C, R.. intense belief in the powers of certain spirits,' which 
1891, p. 244. reside usually in rocks, pools ot water, and streams. 


“Two of the most well known stoiie.s in which reside Dens are 


^ Characterised in the Census Report ‘'evil'’; in v-hat sense is not 
stated, in connection with primitive ethic> it inav bo interesting to note that 
in several langiuii:es mf this ii\>ntitr (Manipun. Kachari. Ao Naga, Lhota Na^a. 



188 


G. M. G'I'jDDKX . — other 


the Lunupalung, close to Lnngpa villasre, and the Changclmng- 
luiiLT, l)et^veell tlie villages of Ditma ami 'Woromoiig. Saeiitices 
are regularly offered to these stones hv the villages near thein." 
j„fra. s "i’he Angami have been recently described as 

Ang.'iun. helieving in “ evil ” spirits (see note * p. 187) residing 

in roeks, trees, and pools of water. 

Sodit'itii uf Fvi'i'ila atvl Trr ,^. — The sanctity attached to 
frjrc'ts a])pears in tlie solemn rites enacted hv tlie Xagfis of 
Xorth Kachar, hefere bnrning the newly felled wood. The 
A. C. E , " Genua” mentioned in the following description is a 

isji. p. 24t. custom, still common to X'aga and Ivuki 

tribes, of pilacing a rigorcms taboo on villag'es, clans (I'hr’.F, or 
.sti'Hurt, iiidit iduals. “Pjeforo burning newly felled patches 

p. 612 . of jiuigle for cultivation, it is the invariable custom 

to establish a Genna. On this occasion, all the tires in the 
villagt! are e-xtinguished. and a cow or buffalo being slain, they 
roast it with tire freshly kindled by means of rubbing together 
two dry ])ieces of wood, make sacrifice and eat. after which they 
])rocef-d in procession witli torches lit from the fresh tire to 
ieiiite the felled jungle.” ' 


Loealisei 

Cr IT. 

Ciilcitta 
EevifAv, ■ 
to]. l\i 

Cr ir 

])a’i nnr. 

Juu" i; 
-A'-i'ano . 
vcl. xii n '■ 

Podl Jour. 

< K‘. 

UtMimil. 
vol xli p. 

13. 


1 foiest-dwelling deities were recognised by the 
Xiigfis of this district. '■ (.'ertain parts of tlie 
fiivst," Mr. Daniant wrote, “are supposed to be the 
aboile of deities, ami no traveller passes without 
plucking a branch off the nearest tree and putting 
it on a large heap of former offerings, which is sur- 
romideil by a numlier of egg-shells stuck on sticks, 
iiiid bones of animaff that have been saciificed.” Xagfi 
tree \\(>iship was not only a thing of the forest. Every 
village of th(! war-like Lliota tribe was described in 
187b as containing a saeied tree to which the skulls 
of victims were nailed. In descriliing a visit to a 
village of the eastern X’.igas, ilr. I’eal says that tlie 
fruit of village ‘jack’ trees was saiil to be religiously 
resijccted.” 


The jungle seems to have heeii regarded by the Aiigiimi as a 


auil r.unlu). the word for bad is merely the word for good used with the 
regatge particle; i.e., md good = bad. I’lius iii Ao. ta-chniiq = eood. and 
hi Hid i-hinyi = bad <,la = adjectival prefiv, md = not) ; and in Lliola, mhu = 
good, and mmJitj = bad ( m — niih . T.ie Anirand and Seina Niicas have separate 
word' bo bad, but the word for good with the neitanve paitiele is as 
freipientiy used to express b.'d as the special words. See “Assam Census 
llepcrt, 1801," p 107. 

' Stewait, 012.^ See "D.iltoii, "Ethnology of Bengal,” p, 13. On p. 40, 
T) i till, speaking of the de-truetion of lore-f' by the more eastiun Xdgl says : 

lliey app-ar to have no siiperslitious dre.id of the svlvan deities like the 
Abors to restrain them.” 



Front ur Tribes of Kuiih-Ead India. 


189 


dwelling place of tlie spirits wliicli caused severe sickness, and 
also siulden deaths of animals. In sickness, otfering was made 
of part of a fowl in the road, at evening, but if the sickness was 
severe, the fowl was taken into the jungle and left alive as an 
Mills. oft'ering to the living spirit ” ; to one spirit, the 

p, exliii. offeiing would he killed and left in the jungle. In 

case of suddeu death of cows, or pigs, an invocation was ad- 
dressed to the spirit at the spot on which the cow was killed,”* 
in which it was reminded “ this is not your residence, your 
abode is in the woods. ’ - 

Ldcreuur.if with Gods and Spirits. — Only the most inaclefjuate 
evidence is available as to the relations between the Xiigas and 
their gods and spirits. Intercourse, we .gather, is carried on by 
means of sacrifice and omens, and doubtless by invocation, as 
in the case of the wood spirit mentioned above, 

Sacrifrr , — Xaga sacrifice is of that primitive order in which 
the rite is an act of uniting the worshipped and the worshipipers 
by means of the great primitive bond of eating together; a fact 
of the utmost si.nuiticauce in appreciating the religious piosition 
of these trilies. Speaking of tribal beliefs, Mr. Gait says, sum- 
ming up the main features “common to almost all the tribes” 
of the Assam frontier, “ on all necessary occasions goats, fowls, 
and other animals are otlered to the gods ” ; to these the blood 
and entrails belong, the flesh being divided amongst the sacrittcer 
A. c. E., and his friends, and the presiding “soothsayer” usually 
isei, p g3. n-ettiiig the chief share. This general statement i.s 
corroborated by Stewart, who says, writing forty years ago of 
the North Kacliar Nagas, that to the gods little more than the 
Stewart, entrails and ofllil were apportioned, the remainder of 
p. 012 . the sacrilice being consumed by the petitioners. It 
is unnecessary to quote examples of the world-wide rite of 
utfcring the blood, the vehicle of life to the primitive mind, to 
the god, while the luiderial flesh is eaten by the worshippers. 

The commensal sacrifice, in which the god and his worshippers 
meet together in the partaking of a common offering, suggests a 
certain nearne.ss of the supernatural pre.sence, and the same idea 
seems carried nut in the curious village ritual of a " day of sacri- 
fice ” described by Mr. laainant. In an official diary of a tour in 
the North Kachar Hills, in 1875, he writes, “ I was in a measure 
obliged to halt to-day. as the Nagas wore holding a Kanang or 
G.inany — i.r.. a day of sacrifice, — and refused to go to iMujiului, 
my next .stage, and to have compelled them wouhl probablv 
have cieated a di'-turbauce. They said last night that the villagt' 


^ In t'le PiGixit tlie reference may be to death by a lih'cr. 
tsee lij'r.i. ').i\ Angauiis. 



190 


Cl. M. CfODDEN . — Xuijd und other 


would be closed again.st evei yorie. including myself. I objected 
to this, and told them I should insist on u'oing into the village 
whenever I pleased, though I would prevent any of my people 
ueing while the worship was going on. After some demur they 
jj. agreed to this. Tliis morning their " Hojai,” as they 

Damant, call tile pi'iest, caiue to the gate of tlie ponjee with 

Diarv -Tour two Other nieii. one leading a dog and the other 
111 X. Kachar geatteriug grains of rice, the Hojai calling in a loud 
' ' voice to all evil spirits to leave the place; the dog 

was hi'ouglit out and sacrificed hy heating it to death with 
clubs, and then taken away to he eaten. On these occasions 
they neither leave the village themselves, nor suffer anyone to 
enter it, and they will do no work.'’ On passing another place 
which was holding a Kunonij, Hr. Damant found a 
' fence built across the entrance to the village. 

Cere iivjnuit seclusioh rind trd'or>. — This hrings us to the cu.stom 


of Cenna, or the ceremonial closing of a village or house, 
which seems to be enforced on occasions of special manifestation 
of superuatura.l power, or of inteicour.se between the gods and 
their worshippers. Thus a Cfeuiui will he enforced during a 
village festival ; during an unu'ual occurrence, such as an earth- 
.V C. R., rpiake, or eclipse, or the hiiruing of a village within 
1S91. p. 24f*. sinht of the village on that account ceremonially 
closed according to Stewart, ‘'(fenna” was observed after 
stenMi-t, consultation of omens to discover the deity to lie 
!’• fii-- wofsliipped in auv special case. — tlie village is 

'U'ictly closed for two day.s, the inhabitants abstaining from all 
lalior, and neither going out themselves nor permitting anyone 
to enter during that period,” a prohibition doubtless intended 
to prevent the possible return of the evil spirits so carefully 
expelled by the priest whom Mr. Damant saw at work ; and 
, ‘ Geniia'' was invaiiahlv eatablished as we have seen 

at tile making ot new-tire liy the village, accom- 
panied by a ciaamensal village sacrifice, iiefore the burning 
<it the newly fV-llvd juiu>le. ‘'During affecting whole 

A. C. R . villages or khels no work is dmie. Tlic people 

isiu. p in their villages; outsiders are, by strict 

'■Ustoiu. not tillijwed Into tlie villauc', or. if allowed in, cannot 
he eiitenaiiied. hothiiig is alloweil to he taken out of the 
■cillaue or brought into it during tlu- contiiiu.iiice of a g/'/om.'' 


^Ir lli’iianl. in iii.- ostiri.il cli-iry or lus “ Tour i;; the X.rrtli Kuch.ar IIilI- 
write-. “WeTit ..n to Nenglo . . . The Nhliis dnl not tiive me a 
l.ini e ■!- il, h.MMiiNe a ticer iniT killed u nit tna and a kaiiAiiii was beuior liehi 
-t appaa'*' to riif.iii a il.iy devoted to imioJum — . it aoy ratth tlit‘v will do no work 
■xe'p*: wli.it IS absolutely necessar}*, an I wi’l not ■'iir out of the viUaiie if the\ 

• in iielo It ” 



Fi'oiitU)' Tribes uf Kvi‘th-Ei's{ TmJic. 


191 


The custom affects not only villages, or kliel.s, but aUo single 
liouselioLl?. A lioLiSeliukl Genua oicuis at the birth of a chill, 
or if any domestic animal, such as a cow or dog, brings forth 
.V C. R.. young. “ Ga such occasimts iiu outsider is allowed 

1801,11 040. into tlie house, and food and drink can be given to 
no one, even the mo.^t intimate friend." The lleputy Commi.s- 
■sioiier of the Xig.l Hills, Hr. I)a\is, was liiiiiself refused a 
ilriiik at a house becau.se the house dog had had puppies. ?ilr. 
Davis attributes two meanings to the word : 'i) it may mean 
practically a village holiday (as in the early reports, which 
describe tlie ])eople as refu-^ing to work during the ‘’Taboo” 
]ieriod) ’. (ii) (T.iiiui means anything forbidden. 

The old accounts of funeral rites evidently refer to a death 
!/• iinu, when it is stated thai after tlie death of a man of any 
MilP. standing, none of the iiduihit iiits of a village quitted 

P exhii. it for three days ; and that for three or four dav.s 

after a death the lelalives do not leave the tillage, neither do 
other villageis resort to the village in whicli a death lias 
■ Jour. Ind. occurred during that period. (.)n the whole the 
Avo!i.'’v(,.l. ii, Xagii and Kuki Uemw appears to be mueli the same 
P a4, l8t'4 as primitive religious taboo.* The vlistinctiuii between 
.t c. R , (jenaus affecting whole villages, /. /o /-s only, or single 
1S91. p. 210. liousehohls, is noteworthy. 

A curious custom which now prevails among the Lliota and 
Ao Nagas seems to indicate a belief that any place or iiersons, 
against whom supernatural disiileasure has heeii iiiaiiifested, 
are dangerous or " tulioo " ; tlie spiiiiu.d infection e.\teiidiiig 
Well to the clothes of the hou.sehold. iMr. l)a\is writes, 
■■ Shouhl auv iiieiiiber of a household he killed hv a tiger, bv 
drowning, by falling from a tree, or by being cru.slied bv a 
falling tree, tbe surviving members of the household aliaiidoii 
the liouse, which is wrecked, ainl the wlmle of their juupeitv. 
<lowii to the very clothes tliey are we.iriiig. and leave the 
village naked, lieing siippilied outside the vilhige with just 
eiiougli elothi'.ig to cover their nakcdiie.'S bv some old man 
nuioiigst their lelatioiis. Thenceforth for .i iiionih ihev are 
t C. R , coiideniiicil to wander ri tb.e jiinulc At the 

' c.xpiratiou of this peri il the wrath of the ehuii' 

bang supposed to be appeased. llie\ ale alloaed to return to 
t'le \ ilhice. Neither they imr anyone t-D,:- ca.ii touch again 
.I'ly of the ab.unloned pl’opelt', ii il e.ui a iT’i sb liousc be 

‘ liTOWD. (]' ) lUiMltl ’TH ioOK? liKt‘ a tOG I taHof) MinOHlJ rild Xliil' 

fiul it'nr iiill in 11 ’.Mtiini ^rampiir rule "M..k “r anv or it-s jirGiuDgr-'. ;-i 

,.\ GUD’d ( all Tlie triboa : milk •'vV r- To ’> • . gti-i utd i niudean ana uu ,r 

:-)!• fool i’iu’' pi-fi U'i.re iU»es i\A o^Ti'iui to rli * v>t r-hiidtini, wb.,) .,iv 

.gt rdaiG'ed ii*g;ii T a Gn iif-t unu'iiaih daii\ 



192 


L't. M. GoiiDEX. — Xdijd and othi r 


built oil the site of tlie old one that has been aiiaiiJoiied. 
The custoiu is, I believe, still carried out with the gi-eatesa 
strictness.'' 

"We seem to have here the .same order of thought which 
enforces a ritual seclusion duiino times of .sacritice, or of un- 
usual occurrences in a village, or in the presence of birth or 
death. 

— Tire confusion of piimitive thoueht between ab- 
stract and concrete, between spiritual agencies and material 
substance, is well shown in the iXaoa attitude towards disease. 
How tanuible a thint; to them the power of sickne.5s is, we see 
in an incident noted hy a former Tolitical Officer of the Xag.i 
Hills. At the to.iverument station of Samagutiiig a Kuki was 
attacked by smallpox, and kept by his friends in the scouts 
lines. The destruction of the lines was necessary, aud the 
Ad Report ^*agas learnt of the ease. The two old Chiefs paid 
jN'A’a himied visits to tinnounce that they were all off, 

llilK_ leaving their pri>pei'ty to our care, and only asking 
js,b-/.p.ii. jy If, taken as medicine if they got 

ill ill the juDgde. Attempts to reason with them were not the 
sligdite.st u.se. and away they all went. The disease wa.s tieated 
as a pei'.sonal enemy, and the village abandoned as would have 
been done before the coming of an invader too jatwerful to 
le^ist. The men weie all fully armed, tlie women and children 
were surrounded, and then all started fair at Lest })ace ; they 
kept away a im.iiith, and tlieii returned with the same precau- 
tions as when lea\'ing, approaching very cautiously with shield.s 
Weil to the front, and peeping round every corner before a 
further ad\ance, until graduallv the whole village was occupied. 
W'lieu they fairh' s.itistied theiuselve.s that no one hut the 
Jvo(jkie had heeii ill, they were latlier ashameil of nuiiiiiig 
away ; Init it was not until some time after when they saw him 
g<jing aliout, Very little the won-e in a[ipearance, that the idea 
tliat he had heeii hiirnt alive was ahauduned. Jlefore, nothing 
s\oulil peisudile them that this had not h(;en done, it being 
looked ujion as merely a wise preeautiouary measure for which 
We de.'-er\e<l cledit. ’* 

A belief ill a dieease-giving .spiiit whicli can be guarded against 
by shields and aiia.s, is in jjerfeet con.-^ouaiiee with the A'fig.i 
til-own, fuiiei.d lire of a war ehalleiige to the power which 
!’■ ha.s ireiiciieruusly slain the dead man. Siicritices or 

A. C K.. (lUeiings ale ii-corded to deilies or spilits in case of 
sirkuc”; one mention i.s made of fcvisting the poor of 


' A'afr,i Hills AcliniiiUtration," 1S7C 

(!'. T, Cariii g ]. p. 11, 


, b\ the Politie.il Ddiie.* 



Frontier Ti ilii ^ of XortJi-Eas,t India. 


193 


A. C. E., the tillages': among the Aos pigs and fowls aie 
1891. p. 244. t.acriticed in large numbers in order to appease the 
particular spirit to tthose malign influence the sickness is 
supposed to be due, the ofierings being consumed by the friends 
liifi-a. s V. of the giver of the sacrifice. The Anganii made 
Angamis. offering of part of a fowl to the di.sea.se-causing 
spirit in the evening, a seemingly chthoiiie act ; parts of tlie 
fowl Were given to some other family, and the remainder wa^ 
eaten by relatives of tlie sick man. 

— Omens seem to liave played an important part in 
the intercourse between goils and men. In Xorth Ivachar tliey 
were supposed, according to Stewart, to indicate the particular 
Stewiu-t. deity that was to be worshipped in order to attain a 
p. 612 . desired end, or to avert evil. Tliat being ascertained 
a strict Genna would be imposed on the village foi two days. 
Of the Angilmi it is said that all business or undertakings of 
Infra, s.r. importance were decided by consulting omens ; the 
Angamis. omen iiiiglit he taken by a prescribed method, or 
might consist in the common animal omen of an " unlucky bea^t '' 
appearing in the path. The following method of divination 
noticed by i\Jr. Carnegy among the eastern (Sibsagar) Xtigiis, was 
em[iloyed before going out on a liead-lmnting expedition ; if the 
unieu was bad tlie party would not start. The mode which 
they have shown me was a very simple one. The leader of the 


intended war party .siiu[dv cuts two thin chips of wood about 
the size of the thumb-nail, and liolding them lightly together 
between his finger and tlnimb lets them fall on the ground 
il-iekenzie height of IS inches 01 ' .SO : if the chips fall 

■‘X.-K. ' 'iiih lie close together on the ground, the omen is 


Frontier of 

Beiisal.’’ 

p. 


far'ourahle and tlie party start. If the chips fall far 
apart, then tliey put otf the expedition to another 
day. I believe they have other modes of divination 


which thev' would not show as they were evidently averse to 


talking on the .subject, and very reluctantly exjihiiiied their chip 
system. "■ This reluctance to exjilaiii tlie form rf diviiiatiorr 
eoincides with Stewart's statement that omens vere eiu[iloyed 
with express religious intention, a statement very significant for 
the origin of practice^ common alike to the primitive savage 
and the European pea-ant. 

Ft'diird.s. — There is at present the seantie.st evidciiee coii- 
cerniiig the iV-tivals of the X.ig.i ritual rear. The great Ang.inii 
tribe celebrate two chief villngefestivals, the A/rr- nfi licldshortly 
hefore the iicwycar'.s work in the fields is begun, and the Ti. rlicn'ji 


' Bronn, ]) .i'l,? Tillage, ns it stamls in MeCullocIi from which Brown takes 
the above (ill C ii'lofh, p. 70) 

- P. X. Carueav, Ottioial p.aper quoted bjr Sir A. Itaekenzie, Appendix C, p. i03. 
VOL, X.WI. ’ 0 



194 


G. M. Goddex .— aivJ other 


01 Haivest Home. At the Stk-rtu^/i dogs (a favourite X;ig;i food) 
aie killed and eaten in large numher.s. At the Tcrhi/o/i great 
l.ifru. feasts are given by wealthv Xhiga-s The Ang.lnii also 
Aiiaaii.!-. have many minor festivals during the year, the chief 
of these being that held just before the paddy harvest begins. 
Among the Ao.s, tliiee chief yearly fe.stivals arc enumerated, 
two of which occur in August, before the commencenieiit of the 
A. C. R., liaivest, and one at the close of the haivest; the 
ispi. p. 2 At niithan fpjresumably mithuu, viz., wild cow), 
.slain for these festival' were killed by hacking with (Xiigh 
hatcheC-swoidsj, the animal finally dying from loss of blood. 
At the second Ao festival in August, which lasts tliree days, 
the .ippaieiit survival of tribal mrniage, already noticed, is 
A. c E., enacted. Among the Lhota " the chief festivals. 
iSDi. p. 24S. as amongst the other tiibes. are those after harvest 
and hefore the commencement of the new year’s cultivation.’’ 
Among the Serna of the present day, tlie principal village 
A. C. E . festivals are tho>e tiiat occur after the conclusion of 
iSOi. p. 247. the rice harvest, and before the commencement of 
the new cultivation. Men w!ic> wi^h to obtain fame by feasting 
their fellow villagers, usually do so at the harvest home festival 
(as among tlie Angami). ’\Ve have no details us to the rites 
performed at the-e festival.'.* 

'With the Luhupas one montli is marked by a ritual c.f the 
Brown, dead. Oiice every year ill December each village 
p. 42. held a solemn festival in honour of those of their 
number who had died during the preceding year. The village 
priests conducted the ceremonies, wliicli culminated on a night 
when the moon was young. On this occasion, it was «uid, the 
'pirits of the dead appeared at a di=tance from the village, in 
tlie faint moonlight, wending their way slowly over the hill', 
and driving before them the victims slam, or the cattle stolen 
during their lives ; the procession disappeared over the distant 
liills, amidst the wailings of the villagers.- 

Funcrol riti'.-i . — The X.lga funeral rites are in full harmoriy 
wuth the fierce and watlike nature of these tribe.s. 'To the Xfiga 
the obligations of blood lend extended, bc-Voiid the slaying of 
visible enemies, to defiance of the unseen power: — “ Thau thou 
Spirit who destroye.st our friends in our owir presence we have 
no greater enemy . . . Whither liast thou fled ? ’’ A 

' Dv. Brown, p. 31. sav- that the Hao ami itaram trihe? liad two festivals in the 
sear, “lite the two principal ones’’ of tlie K.ibuis ; as he does not speeifv the 
two Eabui festival' wliicii have pre-einineiiee in his aeeount of that tribe, we 
are not mueli enlightened. 

^ Dr. Brown adds, “Unless the village priests are well fed, it is said tills 
appearance will not take place.” He says that this is the only stated time for 
Loldino a festival, among the Uiiliupas. 



Fi'Oiu'ki' Trihi of Xviih- Edit hidia. 19f> 

fuuenil witnessed some sixty years ayo ^liows the elaborate 
nature of this challenge, although ending in the sign of Hindu 
influence, the cremation of the dead. The writer, a Baptist 
Missionary, says, -'This day was the completion of the sixth 
month after the death of a wife of one of the chiefs. Their 
custom is to allow the corpse to remain six months in the 
house : at the expiiation of which time the ceremonies I have 
this day witnessed must be performed." In the morning buffa- 
loes, liogs, and fotvls were killed. Abiout noon Xagas in war 
equipment, and fancifully dressed, airived from neighbouring 
villages. They marched to the house where the body lay, 
and began to sing and dance, singing in the Abor tongue. 
Bransmi’s interpreter told him all their songs were borrowed 
from the Aliois, with whom they hold daily intercourse. The 
sulistaiice of the song was as follows : “ What divinity has 
taken away our fiieud t Who are you Where do you live I 
In heaven, or on the earth, or under the eartli t Who are 
you ? Show yourself. If we had known of your coming 
we would have speared you ” This was tirst pronouiiceil 
by the chorister. The whole company then answeied it bv 
exclaiming “ yes,’’ at the same time waving their huge glitter- 
ing spears towards heaven in deflance of tlie evil sjiirit who 
was supposed to have occasioned tlio death. The chori.ster 
continues : '■ We would have cut you in pieces and eaten vour 
flesh.” Yes.” re-ponded the wan iors, brandishing their daos.' 
" If you had apprised us ot your coming and asked (Uir per- 
niision we would hac'e reverenced you ; but you ha\-e secretlv 
taken cue of us and now we will curse you.” - Yes,” responded 
the warriors. The above was the substance of what they 
sang, though varied and repeated many times. The noise of 
music and dancing was continued nearly all night. During 
the greater jiart of the folh.iwiug day the same ceremonies 
were repeated. At the setting of the sun a large companv 
of young women came nuuid the corpse and completelv 
covered it with leaves and flowers, after which it was carried 
to a small hill near by and burnt amid the festivities of the 
people.- 

The following accmint published ten years later adds si.)mc 
further details, and a few heightened touches to the vigour of 
the challenge. Tlie monthly partaking by the dead man ef 
food at the hands of the living is a striking example of primi- 

^ In the account dates, obviou-ly tlie same weapon as dao. 

- Robinson, “Assam/* iHtl, p. 397, quotiii^r an account by the Rev. 
Branson, published in a Baptist MisMonary magazine of 1830. Dalton, p. 
citing Robinson ratlier contusedly, refers this account to some one of the 
eastern border villages. 

0 2 



196 


G. M. GoddeN'. — Xn'/u aiuJ otlo:,' 

ti\'e fijiiiiueuial litual; the seelu^iou obsei’\ed immediately 
after death already referred to. and the strong taboo jn'otecting 
the bier are aGe nutewi.nthy. For three or four day.s after a 
iledth the relati\es did not leave the village, neither ilid other 
villagers resort to the village where a death had occ-urred 
during that periled. AVlieii a man died after a long illness a 
platform was raised witliin his house, on whieh the btidv was 
placed folded in clothe'. By night and day the body was 
watched v.dtli great care, and when decomposition began 
pnantities of 'pirits were thiown over it; and whatever the 
deceased was in the habit of eating and drinking in his lifetime 
( siiL-h as rice, vegetalile', and ,'piirit; was placed once a month 
oil the ground before it.'^ The virtues of the dead weie 
lieyueiitly rehearsed ; and the heirs and relatives made lamen- 
tation for nianv months after the death. At the expiiation of 
the period of luijuruinga great feast i)f liquor, rice, and buffaloes 
and cows' tlesli was prepaied, and an immense number of armed 
Xagii in war dtess assembled to partake of it. They com- 
uieiiceJ the festival by lepeating the name of the deceased, 
singing many kinds of songs, dancing, and cursing tlie deity or 
spirit who had slain their comrade. “ If to-day \ve could see 
vou, we would with these swi.iiils ,rnd .spears kill you. Yes, we 
would eat your rie-h ! yes, we would drink yonr hlood ! yes, we 
Would l.iuiiL Vfjui l.ioues ill tile file! you liave slain our l■elati^■es. 
"Where have you tied to '' why did you kill our friend ? show 
vourselt now, and we 'hall see what your strength is. Come 
quickly. — to-dav, and we shall ^ee you with our eyes, and with 
oiir .'Words cut y(iu in pieces, and eat you raw. Let us see how 
'harp }'our .swi.ud is. and with it we will kill you. Look at our 
'pears, 'ce how sharp theyaie: with them wc will spear you. 
Wlutlier now art thou fled than tlicui, spirit, who de.sti'oyest our 
fi lends in our pre.seiice, wm have no greater enemy. Where are 
you now- ' — wiiither hast thou tlcil ' Witli these and similar 
speccho' and song' they elaslied their weapoii.s, and danced and 
eat and draiik throughout the night. The next dax" the body 
w.is folded up in a cloth, and placed on a new platfoiiu four or 
tive feel high ; and nil the weapons of the de id, his rice dish, 
and bainiioo for watei, everytliing used by liim in his lifetime, 
xvas an aiiged round tlie bier, which was lield sacred ; no one 
dared to toueh a 'ingle thing thus consecrated. After tlii' 

^ Dr. E. B. Ijlor, t]Uotmg tiiis accuiint, tribe> of Assam 

* I'kbratL’d their funeral lejats montli bj month, layiiiij food and drink on the 
graves of the departed.” (‘- Primitive Culture,” voL ii, p 32.) I eannot find 
any ineiition of this practice on the pr/fves, the above usa^e is before tbe final 
funeral rite-*. 

- The orit^inal is quoted verbatim 



F i‘oiitur Trihfb of Inu.iu. 


197 


ceremuny was eoiicluded the peujJe dispersed.' lu a somewhat 
Infra, s.v. siiiiilai accouiit of Aiigaiiii rites, the ineu in their 
Angamis. -war dress strike the earth witli their weapons : 
perhaps indicating the under-world nature of the deatli spirit. 
The union of the living and the dead in a common feast seeiii.-^ 
emphasised by the following Luhtipa u-^age. since the single 
portion placed beneath the dead does not look like any eoni- 
mittal of cattle as wealth in the after-world : — on the death 
Brown, of a Luliupa it was once the custom to make huinan 
P sacrifices ; this was not permitted later, under 

Manipur rule, and instead cattle were >acriticed before the 
corpse could be buried. The cattle sacrificed were eaten, 
with the exception of one leg, wliich was buried under the head 
of tlie deceased. From the details of a modern Angdmi funeral, 
which will be found in a later cluipter, it would seem that 
various forms of eating togethei constitute tlie ehiei acts of the 
A. C. R . ceremonial. On the first day after death a 

1S91, distribution of meat is made among the relations and 

p. 240-1. friends of the dcce<iscd. Tlie next day, after the 
huiial, friends and relations, and one man "f auotlier JJol, gi.i to 
the house of the dead, and eat pait' of tlie meat which had been 
reserved on the pre\ious day. and each lueinber of the decea.-^ed’s 
Ihd. in peifect silence, throws .i piece ot liver "Ut of the liouse 
to a distance of ^ome eight pace*', these pieces of liver having 
been cooked hy meml.iers of another /.h(l wlii.i aie present. On 
the next day, the second that i' atter the liuiial, seventeen 
portions of cooked rice are tied up in leaves, and these ale 
I'uried outside the house on tin- I'airth dav. On the fifth 
day the plattei and cup of the deceased are hung up in 
the house, till thirty day-s have expired, when thev are given 
to a fiiend of their former uwnei About tlie fortieth dav 
the ileceased’.s family sacrificed a cck, of which the Mc.sh 
is eaten ecjually by all, Tlie funeral ceremonies are then 
Complete.- Ample pn.ivisiou was made by the Xiigiis for the 
needs of their dead. A portion of the funeral feast was 
placed in the grave, as we have ^eeii. Iw the Liihnpas ; they 
also buried spears and daos with the uoilv- Tilt* Xurtli Kacluu 

^ ‘‘Journal of the InUiau Arehipelago.*’ ii, lb4S. p. 234. 

' In a short paper on '-llu* North Kaeliar Hill'.," ilr Dainaiit speaks a- 
tliough a funeral saerifiee made to tht* uead. but I am a\Nare of no other 
G. H. Damant, explicit mention ot such a custom — “ OccasiOLally a stake may 
“Calcutta be seen lixed m tlie street in front of a house, from which haiig^ 
v^l'Txi’ skull of a freshly killed metua or buffalo; this is a sign that 

^ death has taken place, and the beast has been sacrificed. To 
a Tery rich man three or four butfaioes 'will be ?acriiiced, to a verv poor man 
only a pig, while in all cases us many of the neij^hbours as possible are 
feasted," Dalton, p. 40, mentions the large number of a-umals killed at the 
funeral of a person of consideration 



198 


< i. M. Goddex. — Naiji'i and other 


3-. H. Xuyai iiked, if they could, to get ;tn Angumi dao to 

Damant, he hufied with them, and Mr. Damant saw several 

Report, ic. purpose ill different houses ; douhtless 

on Lour m ^ ii- i- m 

y. Kaohar ^ weapou neiongiiig to tins 2 >owertul warrior tribe 
Hilh, 1S75. was held to he peculiarly efficacious in the conHicts 
of the after-world. The.se Xag.ts also buried salt and a large 
'Upplv of piovisions with the cleadd the warrior’s spear and dao 
sterrart, weie hulied with him: and to them the custom i-; 

p. tils attributed of placing in the grave any article to 

which the dead weie specially attached. We have .seen in 
an early account that eveiything nsed Iw the dead man in his 
lifetime was let: upon the bier. Angand usage placed on a 
woman’s giave her clotiies, ornament.s and necklaces, weav- 
/,»//■-/. s.v. lug shuttle and spinning stick for cotton, cotton 
ADiiimii. thread, dhan. grain, and pestle and mortar for clearing 
1 ice. 

A curious eu'trmi accompanied the death of a Luhupa which 
in form is siuiiiai to tlie Hindu rite of striking the head to 
JP’own. allow the spirit to escape. *• Gn the death of a 

!’• wanioi. hi' nearest male relation takes a spear and 

wounds the cip^e hy a blow with it on tlie head, so that on his 
arrival m the next world lie may be known and received with 
distinctions." 

The custom ot 'trev.ing flowers over the dead ami upon the 
grave stiike^ .■ note strangely at variance with savage rites 
which seem so c.iii.'Oiiant with the wild nature of these tiibe.s. 
<)u the death ot an aged Khonbao (presumably some holder ot 
othce), an elephant and three hundred buffaloes and pigs were 
killed, and a great toast took place. " The usual cimtom of re- 
viling the deit\' while ringing, and dancing was kexh up with 
uncommon fervour.” Tlie head.' of the slaughtered animal'. 
■.T..iir Ind. Were su-pended round the jilatform vithin a large 
-uvli , II, erifl"'Uie; .tud the body was strewn over with aii 
p. C..O. abuii'laut supply of all kinds of forest howeis. 

The wild iniirral rite> witne'Sed by Mr. Branson, which were 
' elebrateil fm the wite of a chief, concluded, as we have .seen, 
by the apprii.e h. at .'luiset, of a large company of young 
women who roiiiplet.dy covered the body with leaves and flowers. 
A. C. E . The Lite L'eimus Keport notes that flowers are very 
is'ji. p. 21 S. often put u[) over a Lhota’s grave, Stewart, 
writing of the Xorth Kachar Xagfis forty years ago, speaks of 
the aftectiou shown in tending newly-made graves ; protecting 
fences were at first invariably raised, and ffowers were often 
scattered. 


' G, H. Damant, Official Diary of Tour in Xorth Kaohar Hills, 1875. 



Fi' 0 ',)tki' Tribes of Xorth-East India. 


199 


Great variety seems to have obtained as to the manner of 
disposing of the body. luternient, tree burial, exposure, and 
(doubtless Hindu) cremation are all recorded. The more 
G. H. eastern Xagis nearly all exposed their dead upon 
Damant. bamboo platforms, leaving the body to decay ; the 
A°htic soc skull was prC'Crved in the bone house to be found 
Tol. xii, n s. in nearly every village. Dalton describes a custom 
Daltou. of placing the bones of the dead in miniature houses 
P- to. in the shade of groves carefully planted at the 
approaches to the village : tiie bodies were fir^t placed in 
wooden coffins, like boats, and exposed suspended to trees 
outside the village till completely dessicated, after which the 
obseeplies took place.' 

The custom of the Aos of the present day is to leave the 
body on a platform in the cemetery without the village gate. 
The body, placed in a coffin, is .smoked for a period extending 
.A.. C.E, from ten days to two months; then the coffin, over 
isoi, p. 24.3. -wliich is laid one of the dead man’s cloths, is taken 
out and placed on a bandioo platform in the village cemetery. 
“ On the machiiu, along with the coffin, are hung a man’s 
eating-plate and drinking cup, while in Iront in a row are 
arranged the head> he has taken and close to these his shield 
and spear are placed.” If the body is not smoked, it is placed 
in the cemetery as soon after death as possible. The cemeteries 
invariably occupy one side ot the main road leading to the 
village gate. The Ao coffin i-. a stuicture of bamboo aitd 
thatch, shaped Soiaew hat like a house. 

The " naked X.cgiis'" als.'. do not bury the dead, but with 
them tree burial is in use. After being smoked fur ten or 
A. C. K . twenty ilays the body is pat in a wooden coffin, 

1S91, p. 24(3. Qiid placed in the fork of a big tree just outside 
the village gate. In the case of men of distinction, after the 
smoking process, the he. id is removed and placed in an earthen 
pot ; thi.s pot is then matly thatched over with tala in'd, and 
deposited at the foot <4’ the tree in which the coffin containing 
the body is placed. 

Passing to the burial ctistoins, the Xagas of Xorth Kacliar 
were de.scribed as burying their dead at the very doors of their 
G. H. Ironses, in a coffin made ot a hollow tree trrrrrk ; a 

Dam.int. large stone wre- rdled over the top of the grave, and 

Review, ’' mirst, if rrot all, of the village streets were full of 
vol. Ixi ; and these unhewn tombstones. IMr. Damant describes 
Stewart. some of the stones eiecteil to the dead which strewed 
he village road, ns exactly resembling an ancient British cromlech 

^ Dalton, p. 40, speaks of the bones being preserved in these little houses, 
ov buried. 



(t. GodDEX — 'Hid idJitt- 

/111 a small scale ; tliey were suppoited iiv tluee or four >uialler 
'tones placed as upiiylit^ '■ The Xagus," lie adds, ••calculate 
the greatness of their ancestors by the size of their toiiibi-toiies. 
<Jne Xaga in showing Ids grandfather's grave was most proud to 
tell that it co't more to bring it to its place than any other 
tombstone in the village."^ The descendants of those to wlmin 
the stones are erected sit there in the evening, and drink then- 
Stewn-t, rice-beei. According to Stewart there was no sense 

p. 615. of taboo over even a newly -nia/le grave, the sur- 

vivors delighting t/j -it on the “tone^ covering the bodies of their 
i- C. R . friend'. The .''eiiias /jt the present dav bury the 
1S91. p. 247. dead, as a rule, just nutside the deid man’s house : 
over the grave are put up his spear, and shield, and the skulls 
Ilf any cows that may have been killed for the funeral feast. 
Children dying within ten days of birth are buiied inside the 
house. Women dying in c-hihl-biith are buiied without any 
ceremony being obseived. 

The Luhupa dead were buiied iii dieep gr<t\'es : all who died of 
Brown, disease were buried inside the villace precincts, but 

r- those who dieil in battle, i.u' liy wild animah, were 

buried in one place out of the village. The report of 18.54 says 
or the iieiignias. that tluyv ■ intei theii dead and place the 
deceased’s speai in the grave, and his shield, a few 
F stick' with some eggs and giain on the grave, and 

the funeiol cereiiionie.s conclude with lanieittatiom and fe,ist- 
iiig.” The Lhotas of the piesent day buiy the dead within a 
A C. R , pace or two of the front door of the house : after the 
isai, p. 24S bill ial a fire is often kept burning for .several days 
over a man’s giave , the 'kulls of cattle killed for the funeral 
fe.ist are put up over it. 

Accoidiiig to an early a/.count of X'aga funeral ceremonies, 
sudden death was held to be unfortunate; if illuess ended 
.Juur. Ii.d. fatally after one or two months, the time was still 
Awli.,' 11 . too short to be “lucky,” and the body was instantly 
ibis. p -34. pg), loved to a pdatforni four or hve feet high in the 
jungles where it was left to decay. 

Aftii'-ii'orld hih't --'. — Ot Naga beliefs concerniiig the after- 
world little is known.- Inferences may be drawn from some 
of the funeral rites, such a.s the dead man’s need of salt, [irovi- 
sions, and efficient arms, and the monthly food put for him 
iluring the long interval before the last funeral rites. 

Dalton, The more eastern Xagas are described as believing 

P' in a future state in which the present existence is 

^ G-. H. Damant. Calcutta ReTieu/’ vol. Ixi. 

Robinson, ‘'Assam, ’ asserts that the Nagas have some famt notions of the 
immortality of the soul, but gives no proofs 



Fivitii'i- Trihes of North- Eaut Indio. 


201 


L-uiitinued. The Liihupa idea of a futui'e state was, that after 
Brown, death they went to the west, where there was 

r- ^1- another world; in this future .state they lived and 

died, the men six times and the women five. After this they 
were turned into clouds, remaining in that condition. The 
people killed hv a Luhupa became his slaves in the next woiid.^ 
The nature of tlie life they lead in a future state they could not 
explain. It i.s this tribe who, as we have seen, hold that on 
one night in the year the dead may he seen passing over the 
ilistaiit hills, ilriving before them slain men and stolen cattle. 

To the soiuh-west from the whole of the Serna country 
parallel and horizontal lures are very plainly to be seen, marking 
the stratihcation of the rocks in the east side of the Wokha 
liill. These rock lures are called Kitilii, or dead man’s load, and 
are said to !ie the path leading to the village of the dead. 
A. C. E., Wliere this village is iro man can say, brrt that it 
18M. p. 2i7. exists dll believe. 

XulE. — It may be noted that the late 8ii' J. Johnstone found no signs 
of any prevalent snake worship among the Xagas or Alanipuri. He 
savs, under heading of the Angami Xagas, " Xaga is a name git eii by the 
inhabitants, of the pilains, and in the Assamese laugu.ige means ‘naked.' 

As s, .me of the Xaga tiibes are seen habitually in that state, 
Sir J. John- name was aibitrarily applied to them all. It is the 

stone, ily sie.itest mistake to connect them with the snake worshipjjei's. 
l-vpenenie-^^ “ Xag ISimgsees ’’ of India. Xeithet Xagas or Alauipuris, or 
' * tribes on the eastern fiontier, are addicted to this wor- 

' ship, oi liave any traditions eoimected with it, and any snake, 

Cobra (Xag . or otherwise, would receive small mercy at their hands. The 
slightest personal a. ijuaint.ince with the Assamese and their language, 
v.'.iuld have dispelld this myth foi evei.” In a letter received shortly 
bef. ire his de ith. lie V Lite tome: " It m.iy interest you to hear that I 
totallv disbelieve in any trace of snake woiship In Assam or Mauipui 
e.xcept in enses of its being reeeutly imported — I never saw a 

McC'uIloeli, traee of it. " Alet'ulluch, wiitmg m 1850, gives two instances 
pp 17 & 32. of a snake god among the Alampuri. 

I regret that two papers on the Xaga tribes read befoie the Institute, 
by Colonel 'Woodtliorpe in 1881, and published in the .Tourual of the 
Iiislitute, 18S2 ; and a papei piihlishtd by C'ajitaiii Butler uiieler the title 
of ■■Hough Xutes oil the Aiigami Xagis,” in the -Jouiual of the Asiatic 
Society of Beng d, 1875, have come to my notice too Lite for the above 
pages to have the benefit ..f information cx.iitaiued in tbeui. 

To tjt cunt lit tied ) 


' Eubinsou s.iw that on the death of a Aaga nari'ier ail the scalps taken by 
him during liis lifetime were burnt with his remains. This would seem to refer 
to Tillages that had come under Hindu mduence ; the intention may have been 
to let the dead man be accompanied by these other dead. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA AND NEW BOOKS. 


lita'Iers of Joynial cire iii'.it'd to rnminunicnfo amj aeic fads of 
e'ljccial intti'o't ivh'cl cohn ’.'nd^r th-ir noyke. Sroo-t abstracts of, or 
i.cfiiids froii, httkrs idll Is jjauUstccd at the dlscrdton of the Editor. 
Litters shovld hi loarhed " i}LisceUai-.ea” Ord addressed to Tie 
Sicretanj, 3, Huno er Sqt'are, 11*. 


A Vocabulary of various Dialects used in New Georgia, 
Solomon Islands. Compiled by Lieutenants B. T. Somer- 
ville and S. C We-.giill. B-N.. H !M.S. Fiiiqxin. 1S93— t— t, 
Hydrocrapliio Department. Admiralty. 1506. Fcap. 36 
pages. 

Tbis work makei a valuable addition to our knowledge of tlie 
northern dialects of the Solomon I.slands. the only previously 
existing data for the lans’iiacts. of Xew Georgia being short 
vocabularie.s in Dr. Codrino-ton's •' Melanesian Languages,’’ and in 
Mr. C. M. Woodford's •• Xatnrali.st atnong the Head Hunters ’’ Of 
the nine dialects of the island, four are here illustrated. These are 
the Rubiana or Roviahana of the south-west lagoon ; the IMarovo, 
used by the coast native.s eveiwwliere, except on Rendova Island; 
the IMbariki of the bush natives in the ilbariki peninsula ; and the 
Hoava of the bush natives on the north-ea.st side of the Kusage 
hills. 

As usual with languages in this part of the Solomon Islands, 
the voctibularie.s .show many dift'erenee.s, even in common words, 
and there is not much agreement v\'ith languages in the south- 
eastern poition of the Solomon group. There are. no doubt, some 
agreements with even .such a characteristically ilelanesian language 
as that of Florida, but they are not very prominent, and in no way 
sup-gest a connection between the lung, urges. Xeither do the 
exceptional woixl.s in Xew Georgia .suggest a connection with such 
languages as the 5avo or the Alu of Treasury Island, though there 
are a few agreements with the Simbo of Eddystone Island. 

The variation of language in the Northern Solomon Islands may 
be illustrated by the numerals 



A'lith ri>iioJoi/ii'nJ Mi=t, I nane'y nnif Xev.’ Books. 20-t 


>'ew Gteohg-ia. Teeastey 

Savo. Is. 



MaroTo. 

"Rahiaii.i 

5Ib,iri'd 

Hoava. 


Alu. 

1 

//I tkf( 


nielo 


ehi 

laid. ilit'. 

2 

Jciru'i 

f. /• './ 

h Jl'l' t 

kort'd 

edo 

. elud. 

3 

hike 


\tke 

hike 

ujiva 

epkiu 

4 

lllfl. no 1 



iixoiuh . 

agavif 

. efate. 

5 

lun'y 

h tfl 

1 ( III 1 

liuia 

a, 'Ll 

linia. 

6 

OilOniO 

OiiO'h O 

'nl'ni'O 

odorno 

pogua 

Odonio, 

7 

/? ) u -7 p a 

/' / (o-f pa 

u.nipn 

djVO px 

pogoro .. 

... fito. 

s 

L'esho 

1 

. -1’' 

'psh" 

kui 

alv . 

9 

s/Vf 

s'- ( 



kvai'i' 

nlia. 

10 

.iinnji'. ' 

.(d- pf’ 

d.f d'I'l ,'V 

jftdjeru 

t'lle 

hiflil.i. 



EDDTsIOXh 

Is 

Buka. 

ilAlAXTA. 


Ys 

ABEL. 1 

Florida. 


Simbo. 


Saa 

liugetu. 

Xii^ao. 


1 

kanii 

hd-t»n . 

f,! 



1 kdhe.ia'^a. 

sakai, kehu. 

2 

ka,'v 

'1‘fdeel . 

.'I't 

1 I'Oil 


. pahi 

rua. 

3 

kne 

t'j-pi'i ' 

ijhi 

• f‘jb' 


• tolu 

tohi. 

4 

mant' 

f'j-'idf''' 

hat 

; r ih 


■ f‘'0 

vati 

5 

hdia 

to-lhnCl 

U ne 

' /O/i! 


ll:.,n . . 

land. 

6 

v'aunoci 

tO'd'' nl 

OuO 

0 0 


fd Id no 

OdO. 

- 

U-'til 

tou d 

h"> 

■ e,fn 


■ 

ritu. 

8 

kale 

to-K'dl 

R’.T/// 

■■ „l.. 


, f'-hv 

hdlu. 

9 

siadq 

fo-si 

S, I't 

hid 


■ . 

h ? I'd 

10 

idanosn 

•d dof.j 

‘<. 'hulx 

v thr. 


' f'llJltlilJ 

\ 

hddgdi'uh' . 

In 

this table 

the Saa. 

Bugotu. 

and 

Flor 

ida mav be 

taken to 


represent the nsnal 3[elanesinn forms. 

The pronouns vary in a similar wav. 

Marovo, ro.Jiii : Rnbiana ami Hoava. aroo — I. Marovo anil 
Hoava, /lO! ; Rnbiana. a,joi i iMb.iriki, ho = Yon iMarovo and 
Rnbiana. ia = He. ilarovo, Kani' = Ye. 

The possessive agrees witli the Tloriila prepo.sitiou tt(, and has 
the usual suffixed pronouns, followed by the pei'sonal pronoun, as 
in ^larovo ta-ruju-raka, my ; ia-ni-hoi, tliy. your ; ta-u-io. his. 

The vocabulary is followed by several pages of phrases and 
-sentences, which will give some idea of the construction of the 
language, and be of use to the explorer or missionary who may 
liave occasion to study the language mure thoroughlv. 

This i.s not the first illustration of ilelanesian languao’e.s frr 
which we are indebted to officers of the Royal Yavy surveying in 
the Pacific Ocean. The example set by Lieutenants Somerville 
and Weigall is one which, if more generally followed, could not 
fail to be of great service to Anthropological and Linguistic 
Science. 


S. H. RtT. 




2U4 Anthropological Miscellanea and New Books. 

A Paumotuan Dictionary with Polynesian Comparatives. 

Bv Edward Tregear. Wellington, New Zealand. 1895. 8vo. 

IdO pages. 

In this work Mr. Tregear gives a very interesting collection of 
words in the language of the Dangerous or Low Archipelago, 
eastward of Tahiti in Central Polynesia. The interest of this 
language consists in the very remarkable ditference= between the 
vocabulary and that of other Polynesian languages, although the 
Mangarevau of the adjacent Gambia group dili'ers very little from 
such typical languages as Maori or Tahitian. By printing opposite 
the Paumotuan words, comparatives from the other dialects, and 
leaving blank .spaces opjjodte to those for which he could find no 
equivalents. Mr. Tregear has made it easy for the student to 
distinguish the non-Polyuesian element in the language. 

The exceptional words may be roughly divided into two classes, 
viz. : those which are used to a limited extent in neighbouring 
languas'es, though they difler from the usual Polynesian, and those 
which have no known Polynesianequivalents. To the former belong 
such words as uold, eye, the Maori kanoki ; teke. flower or fruit. 
IMarquesan. t'=ke. sprout ; vA-u. hair. Tahitian ceu. To the latter 
belong such words as/vf/Au.fire. heka, road, pepenu, head. 7iiakoi, man. 
So far as can be ascertained this latter class of words show little 
agreement with any current in other parts of Oceania. The word 
lukai. table, is the Banks' Island kakat; A-ci. mussel, may be the Fiji 
kfii. There may be a few agreements with uncommon words in other 
]iarts. as in the words Avino. Ysabel kumi, water; mj'jca. Y’sabel 
P'u'/c,. New Georgia, /loluna, cocoanut ; ngoreiigort:, via\o. korakora. 
New Georgia, kureko'ce. ]ieel : knokno, Motu New Guinea, kurokuro. 
white; /i t A i'. New Georgia. Am. Santa Cruz, gnie, fire; vukivaki. 
white, karali;. moon. Ysabel, vega, white. It is of course impossible 
t(.j form aiiv theory as to the origin of the strange element in the 
Paumotuan hiuguage from such isolated coincidences as these, but 
they illustrate a fact which is of some importance when dealing 
philologically with the question whether the present occupants of 
Polynesia and Melanesia are the original inhabitants. It is 
remarkable that wherever in a Melaue.sian language words are 
found which differ from those in general use throughout Oceania, 
these -words very rarely agree with the exceptional words in 
another language. Take for example the exceptional languages of 
Santa Cruz and Nitilole, in Central Melanesia. Savo and Alain the 
Solomon Islands, and the word.s for sun, moon, bird, and egg. We 
have the following- toi-ms : — 



Sun. 

Moon. 

' Birtl 

hgg. 

Santa Cruz 

tianna 

. tetda 

[ kitj . . 

b. 


... u 


. ' degiduo . ' 

! nuolie. 

SaTO 

kvh 

. kuqe ,. 

' kosu 

sii. 

Alu 

■ ■ fdo 

ilala 

j marvka 

eruti. 

Melanesian 

. \ alo ... 

. . j Vida 

.. inaiixi 

toliu. 


Antlu'oiMiyjiml Miscellanea and Xea: Books. 


205 


It will be observed that with the exception of the words maruka 
andniio/i'e, which may be the Melanesian hiaim and toUit, these are 
different from the usual words, and also have no likeness to one 
another. Such facts suggest the probability of the Oceanic 
Islands having once been inhabited by people speaking various 
tlistinct languages, and that they have since been colonized by a 
race speaking dialects of a common language, the simple structure 
of which has obliterated those with more complex forms. 

It is worth notice that in New Guinea, where languages are 
fijund very different from the IMelanesian, these also show little 
likeness to one another in vocabulary, and in places where they 
have borrowed Melanesian words or grammatical forms, the 
Melanesian element is the only common feature. It is therefore 
probable that in the non-!Melanesian languages of Xew Guinea we 
have remaining languages of similar .structure to those which 
were formerly more widely spread in the Oceanic region ; and that 
there are still found in varying quantity among the Melanesian 
a-id Polynesian dialects remains of the di-similar vocabularies of 
former inhabitants of the islands. Viewed thus the Panmotn is 
the Polynesian dialect which has preserved most of the archaic 
element, and thus the labour which Mr. Tregear has expended 
upon this dictionary cannot fail to be of value to the student of 
Oceanic languages. 

S. H. R.vt, 

The Chin Hills : A History of the People, oar dealing's with 
them, their customs and manners, and a Gazetteer of their 
country, by Bertram S. Carey. C.I.E . Assistant Commissioner, 
Burma, and H. X. Tuck, Extra Assistant Commissioner. 
Rangoon. Printed by the Sujierintcndent, Government 
Printing, Burma. Lt'dtj. ^ ol. i. Svo. 'Job pages. 

This book calls to mind ilr. Read s resolution passed at the British 
-Cssoeiation this year, and makes one reflect how much might be 
done for Ethnology bv the British Empire if the intelligent 
interest of it.s administrators in the people.s they govern Were 
svstematicallv organised. For here we have a very admirable 
piece of work carried out. apparently with the support of the 
Chief Commissioner of Burma, by two political otticers in the hill 
eoiintiy to the north-west of that great Dependency. The first 
part ot the book deals principally with the history ot onr political 
relations with the country. Bat in the second part, devoted to 
'■ iMannevs and Customs,'' the authors give a very- eirenrastantial 
account of the Chin tribe.s in their habit as ihcy live, so much so 
that with the additional aid of photo etching- of quite exceptional 
ethnographic merit, the reader feels on laying- the volume 
clown that the Chin Hills have becejme a familiar countrv. IVe 
are presented with a picture of barbarous society, one side of 
w hic.'h finds a paralkl in the old feudalism of Europe, but a 
lendalism devoid of chivalry, in which the right of private 



206 


Atithropological MistcUnnca fiul JS'cic Bools. 


war means tlie riglit of treaclierously raiding one’s ueighboar. 
and in which the rmirdei- of a defenceless foe is a doughty 
feat of arms. Of the various tribes of the Chins, all allied 
to the Kuki family, the Siyins appear to bear the worst 
character for treachery in a land where “ all are drunkards, liars 
and thieves." The practice of headhunting, the result of universal 
blood feuds, was especially prevalent among them. Here it mav 
be noted that the Chins do not. like the Dyaks. keep the skulls of 
their enemies in their houses, but place them on poles outside, 
fearing the malign influence of the indwelling spirits : trophie.s of 
animal skulls are. on the contrary, to be found in most verandahs. 
Of the other tribes, the Hakas. Tashons. Shuuklas and .Soktes. 
the tirst are noted fur avarice, the second for political sense and 
diplomatic cunr.ing. 

Good ill u.s tint ions of Chiu hou.ses aud village.s are given, and 
there is a plan of a typical house at p. 176. ilost Chins have 
both a town and a country himse. The methods pursued iu 
lututing and agriculture are caretully der'Cribed : neither iu 
tilling iiur transport are cattle employed. Burial and marriage 
cu'toms differ slightly in the different tribes. The Chiii' 
resemble the Dyaks and othei Eastern peoples in their attention 
to omens and in the practice of divination by examining the livtr 
of animals. 

Their beliefs are those of all races at an early stage of culture : 
the propitiation of spii-its forms a principal part of their religion. 
Spirits are powerles.s tor good, but active in evil ; disease is their 
Work, or that of wizards tiirongh who>e agency foreign bodie.s are 
introduced into the system, taking the form of lizards, rats. halK 
of hair or string. 

The chapters on "Civil anil Ctiminal Laws"; the "Position or 
the Chiefs in regard to the people, .slaves and slavery ” ; and on 

Raids and ilethods of Warfare.” offer material of much intere.-t. 
The nnlverr,a] habit of drunkenne.ss is a modifying factor in the 
execution of ciistomarv law, A point worthy of remark with 
relation to civil law is that among the Siyins and Soktes the 
yonngest son alone succeeds to the paternal estate, while amongst 
<jther tribes the eldest does so; thi.s is not the only point in which 
the cn.storas of the Xortli and South Chin Hills materially differ. 

There is much that is etlinographically of interest in this 
volume. Objects worthy of mention are the bra.s.s hair-pins or 
skewer.s noru in the hair by tbe Hakas. used with deadly effect as 
weapons in drunken quarrels ; the women's water-pipes, used to 
prepare ‘’nicotine water ” forthemen; .a kind of " kiinekle-duster " 
used as a concealed weapon by the Southern Chins, and producing 
'Cars on tlie face which are considered as glorious as the scars of a 
German student ; the heavy brass or iron girdle 3-10 lbs. in 
weight worn by women to keep the cotton skirt in position ; tlie 
tribal tartans ; and the various weapons of offence and defence. 

There i.s unfortunately no map on a laige .scale but the 
twenty-five full-page permanent illustrations, ‘ from photograplis 



by Sargeon-]\rajor Xewlaml and Sergeant Sinclair, of the Queen’s 
Own Sappers and Miners, have already been noticed as being of 
particular excellence. The grouping and general treatment are 
admirable. Ethnologists will look forward with interest to a 
continuation of the fruitful labours of Messrs. Carey and Tack. 

Tlie Anticihrist Legend : A chapter in Christian and Jewish 
Folk Lore. Englished from the German of W. Bousset. with 
a Prologue on the Babylonian Dragon Myth, bv A. H. Keane. 
Small 8vo. London ; Hntcliiuson and Co. 1896. 

Bousset's book is a gnide to Early Christian aud Mediieval 
Apocalyptic Literature. But Bousset himself, though aware that 
tile Antichrist Legend might be traced back to a veiy early date in 
the history of humanity, di'l not carry it further than about the 
dawn of the Xew Era. The investigations of Gniikel took it to 
Babylon ; but there yet remained a lacuna to fill, and to this we owe 
Mr. Keane's interesting aud suggestiN e Prologue. The derivation 
of Antichrist from Tiamat or Tiawat. The Dragon of Chaos " of 
the Akkadians, leads on to a yet more ancient aud material 
prototype among the Sanrians of the Lou cr Mesopotamian Plains 
such as they were known aud encountered by primitive man, 
•• IVe now begin to understand the peculiar form assumed by 
the Semitic account of the Creation, which is itself based on earlier 
Akkadian traditions.” 

The Antichrist Legend has therefore a very long pedigree. ' It 
c.trries us b ick to the primeval conditions irnder which it grew 
up and crystLillized into later national mythologies. These con- 
ditions were here, as elsewhere, the circumstances incident to the 
struggle of primitive man with his surroundings. Thus also 
the weird story of the Antichrist Legend is completed in its three 
successive phases — from the Xew Era toMediawal times, a millen- 
nium (Bousset) ; from Babylonia to the Xew Em. four millenniums 
(Gunkel) ; from the Stone Ages to Babylonia, as here suggested, 
many millenniums.” p. xxiv. 

The whole subject provides an instructive example of the 
life-history of a myth, aud Mr. Kerne is to be congratulated 
on presenting it to the English public in such an accessible and 
attractive form. 

“ The American Anthropologist.” Vol. i.x. Xos. 6-7. (Xo. 
6.) Introduction of the Iron Age into Anieriea, by Otis T. Mason. 
(Xo. 7.) Classification and Development of Primitive Implements, 
by Joseph D. McGuire. The Ute Bear Dance (illustrated), bv 
Verner Z. Reed. .Tohn Gregory Bourke — ohitiiaiw (with frontis- 
piece), by F. VT. Hodge. 

“ The American Journal of Psychology.” 'S'ol. vii. Xo. 4. 
On Muscular iMeinory, Theodate Ij. Smith. A Preliminary Study 
of some of the Motor Phenomena of Mental Effect, by Ernest H. 
Lindley. Light Intensity and Depth Perception, by T. R. 
Robinson. Attention, Experimental and Critical, by Frank Drew. 



20S 


Ai'ith ! OiirJoiikriJ MisccUoncn rrail Xcn' 


“Journal of Mental Science.” Vol. xlh. Xos. 142-14:1. 
(Xo. 142.) Torquato Tas^o and his BioErrapher--. by W. W. 
Ireland. Statistics dealing with Hei-editary Insanity, based 
on upwards of a tlion.sand cases occurrino- in the Essex Counrj' 
Asylum, by John Turner. Certain Conditions of the Circulatory 
System in the Insane, by Samuel Edirerley. Dangerous Lunatics 
cliaro-ed with crime. Xote on operation of 15th Section of 25 and 
2tl Viet., cap. 54 (Lunacy Statutes, Scotland), by John Carswell. 
On Mental Fatiffue and Recovery, by W. H. R. Rivers. Remarks 
on the Xursing Staff in Asylum^^. by P. MacDonald. The 
Special Reports and Certificates recptired by Section 38 of the 
Lunacy Act of 1890, and Section 7 of the Act for 1S91, by R. S. 
Stewart. Atypical and Unusual Brain-Forms, especially in Rela- 
tion to Me-utal Status : A Study on Brain Surface Morphology, by 
W, .Julius Mickle. fXo 14:1.) Presidential Addre.s.s. by SX . .j 
iliokle. The Significence of WeismannS Doctrine in ln.«anity, 
by CL R. Wilson. Heredity in iMental Disease, by -I. F. Briscoe. 
The Increase of CLeneral Paralysis in England and Wales : its 
(hinsation and Significance, by R. S. .Stewart. The Ho.spital 
Treatment of the Insane in Asylums, by .1. Macpher^on. Xote on 
Female Xur.^-ing in an Asylum Male Sick Room, by A. R. Turnbull. 
The Cairo A.=ylum ; Dr. Warnock on Hashee.sh Insanity, by T. S. 
iTouston. Torquato Tasso and his Biographers, by W. W. 
Ireland. 

“ The American Antiquarian.” Vol. xwiii. Xos. :3-4. (Xo. 
.i I Ai'chi-eological Studies among the Ancient Cities of Mexico. 
In' XX. H. Holmes. Data of Michigan Arcliteology. by H. 1. 
.Smith. Eu't Inilia Folk Lore. Adyeiitures of the Brahmin Kala- 
Sarma. by T. W. Knox. Folk Lore on .Stone, by Countess E. Al. 
Ce.sari's.-o. Egyptological Xotts, by XX. C. Winslow. Oiiental 
X(ites. Xotes on European Arclireology, by D. CL Brinton. 
-i'troiiomical Symbol-- in A-ia and America, by .S. D. Peet. 
Ftlinographic Xotes. by A. S, Clatschet. (Xo. 4.) Xotes on 
Dceaiiia. by .J. Eraser. .Some Xorlli-west Burial Customs, by .1. 
Wieker-ham. Prehistoric Rcniaius in St. Paul, Alinuesota, by T. 
If Lewis. The Psycliologic Development of Aledicine, by J. H. 
.McCormick. Early Auiericau E.xpha-ations among the Pueblo.s, 
liv S, D Peet. Iroquoian Pliihihigy. b}' H. Hale. Egyptological 
Notes. Tile Afagniticence of Prehistoric -America. Archreolouicai 
Xotes 

“Transactions and Proceedings of the Japan Society.” 
Vol. iii. A’olcaiiic aud Earthquake Phenomena of .Japan, by Pruf. 
.1. Alilue. Xute.s mi the History of Lacquei'. by E. Hart. A 
Xote on the Form of Japanese Temple Roofs; "A X'ote on the 
Key P.iTtern in .Japan'’ ; " The Japanese Alnsical .Scale.’’ by F T. 
Piggott. Aspect.s of Social Life m Alodern .Japan, by the Yen. 
Archdeacon A. C. Shaw. “Court and Society in Tokyo,” by 
F. H. Balfour. 



THE JOUEXAL 


or THE 

ANTHROPOLOGICAL INSTITUTE 


OF 


GEEAT BEITAIH AXD lEELAXD. 


XovE.McnR 10x11, 1890. 

E. W. Braleook, E^ij., E.8.A., Prt'suh.if, in rh: Chair. 

The IMiuiite? of the last Meeting wore road and signed. 

The le^ignatii.ns of Messrs. J. Coi.E.s. J. C'legho];x, E. E.tx- 
GAY, I. .1. .'>};riir. and tlie deaths i.f Sir d. rRESiwicir, and 
Mes.-^is. A. EfiroRD and Dr. -J. 11. LaxgiiOX 1)ov.’X, wore 
announced. 


l\Ir. V. L. SrEArRj:, F.E.S.. exhihitod a Mancula Euard fioin 
Xy:is:i-lani!, and read the tVillowin.g extract from a letter from 
ddr. Alfred SlMi'pe, H. H.M. Consul and Acting Coiiimis.siuiier. 
addre-^sed to him, dated Zoinha, August 7th. 18'J(j. 

“Another thing' T iini sending you which a]i]icars to nit^ to la- 
of great intcM -t, is nn African-made wooden hoanl v.ith cups in 
it for phiviiig that Aliican drauglits game, which is at ane lato 
years nidi, if not more. This game is played v.dth sm.dd 
pehhles. Till y put three in each hole and then mor e them 
mid shift tlii'iii ahout in a way which no white man can unde r- 
staiul. I Was very much .struck in Cairo hy seeing in ilio 
i\luseum ihcr.' an alino.st similar drauglits ho.ird made in 
alahaster which dated from, I think, the 2nd or drd d.vmistv. 
I also noticed in Egypt the children in the road plaving the 
VOX. XXVI. 'r 



210 11. CALrouB. — Oil E.^i.uu-^alh 

s.'in.e pime. llieir ’m-'id lieing little Iiule^ .scr.ttelieJ in tin- 
nr-suiid. Here, in any nttive vilLiye. uiu? may see the .sanii^ 
e'.ime heing played in a similar niainier, that i.s, the heles leine 
S-i'atched in the llat ground. 

■■The AtTieaii nt c-niiree iicver ehaniic-:^, andi it stems to me a 
very lemarkable thing ih.;! this yanie (sve km;nV; has Leen 
played for In'e or .six th. .iLSdiid. veai.s in Afiica, froin Cairo 
to the Cape. Peiliaps v,.u may tliink this liative-made bwad 
of interest for the ISriti'h Museitiii. Certainly, if it were put 
ali'iigside one rh tile Stone ones fouinl in Egypt many thousand 
Years ago, it tvoiiLl lie rather a striking; sight. I think.” 

air. C. H. exluhited a w-ohii mask from the hTorth 

AVest e ■'.tst of Ameiica, and Mr. H. I’ALFeiUK various native 
In li.iii prop nations of hemp for ceaisumpti 'U. 

Tlie following papers were read : — 

“ Cn a liemarkable How and Arrows found in Egipt. helieveel 
to be of Assyrian Oiieiii." lly Mr. II, Balfour (with Exhi- 
bitioni. 

Life History of an sAghoii Fakir, '^vith Exhibitirm of his and 
other Drinking A"e.s.sels made of Human Skulls, and note.s upon 
the same.” By Mr. H. Balfoue. 


Oil K. Eeaiaekaele AxctEXT Boty and Aekows hOkrcd to Ic of 
Assyrian Origin. By Henry Balfour, M.A. 

[■WITH PLATES li AXD X.] 

I 'WAS lecently enabled, through the kindness of Professor 
W. Elhiders I’etrie, to whom I am greatly indebted, to obtain 
an ancient archer’s eipiipmeiit of very exceptional interest. 
The Ijow is, I believe, uiii(|Ue, although one somewhat similar is 
in the Berlin IMu.seuin, and has been described by Dr. v. 
Luschan,* and also by Air. C. J. Longman." This latter speci- 
men, however, while of great interest and importance, and 
obviou.sly nearly allied to the one which I am about to describe, 
is unfortunately very imperfect, and niucli of its structure 
necessarily remains uncertain. I shall refer again to this 
specimen. 

The bow, wliicli came to me through Brufessor Petrie, 'vvas 
' '■ Rroc. IScrlin Anthrop. Suc.,” May, 1S03. 

• ■■ Ardicrr,” Eaammton Series, lSt'4, p. 63, etc., and in “ Jouriv Antbr.'p. 
Inst ,■’ liiv, FI, X. 



B' aad 211 

fuiuiil tl;o fcilL.wiiiL; <_irciuiistraict;?. A touili of liie 

XX^'I dyna-tv excrivatod at Tliel.es in Ep-ypt, mider 

the direction, I undunet.iud, of Mr. Eiitros. the Italian Consul. 
Ainoiip&t other thinp.s lie found a ! “W. or rather tvoj pieces of 
')ne. of the nsnal ancient Epyptian shape (Fig. ,5). that i.s to say 
a single-stave 'woodoeii how. stout ti.iward.s the centre, a.nd 
taY'ding towards the end-^, which euive firward rather 
ahruptly ; it is one of a typre which is coniinouly to he seen 
in iiiuseuins aiiel collections of Eg'VYitiau autie|nitics, and eliheis 
hut little from many modern African hows. This specimen I 
have, and cxhihit it together with the arrows found with it, 
which are aleO of typical Egyj'tiau foun. Shortly after the 
tinding of thi.s how one of the men, whci hail lieen empiloyod l.y 
Mr. Butros in his excavations, jn’oduced a second how with 
•several armw.s. which he said were found in the same lonih as 
tlie other how and arrows. Both hows with tlieii allows came 
into the hands of a friend of Mr. Petrie’s, and through tlie 
latter’s kind niediation I was aMe to pnrchrse tln-m. 

The how which was found hy tlie woikman is in every way 
a reiiiaikahle .'pecimen (Fig. 1'. Althoueli it was found in an 
Egyptian tomly it is ehaily not of indigeiiiius origin. It is 
quite niilike the clunacteii^tie tc^'e of Egiiitian hnw. Iimtead 
of having 1 eeii cut fiom ,i single piece ot wood, it is of cjrm 
structure, an elahorate eoiuhinatii'n of different mateiial.'. one 
of which, at any late, is foreign to the Country in which the 
how was found. Everything, in fact, points to this how having 
come into Egvjit fiom a more iioitlitily region, whence it iniulit 
possilily have heeu hrouglit as a tropEy of war, hy an inva'iing 
force, or hy foicigii meicciiarii s in the Egyptian scia ice, 

Diicriiitiiiii .. — Tliis how i.s of very hue make, the work of a 
highly skilled howyer. ami it is beautifully finished. Although 
sufficiently well pueserved to show its shape and structure 
accurately — a remarkahle case of preservation I'ri m d^-cay, 
when we consider the m.iteiials of which ir is built up — i: li.i.s 
been broken in two at the centre across the hamlle, and has, 
moreover, been suhjccteil to tiie ravages of white ants, which 
have eaten away jiortiens at various jioints. X'or is this 
altogether to he dcYrlorcd, for, while the .irtistie perfection and 
intrinsic value of the how as a complete sYiecimeii is s.idlv 
impaiied, tlie same rarse has rendered eayv the examination of 
the detailed stria ture ef tiie liow, and has exposed the vain ns 
materials which have K-cii used in it.s composition. In fact, 
the cutting of a 'ingle transverse section across one ipf the 
lindiS is all that has been necessary in the way of dissection. 

In length tile liiiw is about oVj inches, measured along tlie 
" helly ’’ ami follioving tlie enrv. s. Measured in a straight line 

P 2 



212 


H. Balfour . — On a i?t ;/(<// 7. 


fiwPA tiji to till, tlie leiLAtli al'Out .33 iucln;^. It i;, in fact, 
iiiiakfillv icticxcil, TraXiVroi’c?. thouLih to nothin^ like the 
.--aiiic extent as many niuueru Asiatic composite Ijows. rivnu 
the centre to the extreiiiitieri of the " liniUs " it ta.jiei s very 
yia'lnally, the ttvo enha lieiny fl’ slender proportion^, the 
extieinities cuiviny haekwaid rather ahuiptly. Xeerthe centre 
or one of the "liiuhs'' the oh-tp measure^ a little Itos than 
•3 inches. 

In the cays when it was still new and ready for use, iiothiny 
of ite stiuciure C'caild be seen, as it was completely enveloped 
in .ill exteir.al cijatiuy of X; cA fFie:'. 2 ami .3), as is so 
fieyiitntly the cu.ee with the modern hows of Xorth India and 
Persia ; the yreatc-r part of thi.e bark layer remains intact. 

The nuiterials used in the construction of this how aie : — 
1. wocid hwo kiuihs): 2. Hack horn; 3. siuew.s of animals: 
4. hiich-hatk; 3. glue. Their pC'sitioiis are made clear in the 
di.inram. 

The eeiitral coie 3') or '■ hackhoue," ccaisists of a piece of 
woch. tapeiiiin towards the eneb, which runs the tvhole length 
of the how, and is flattened oWcing in eross section. The wood 
is not veiy luird. hut i' " stringy” with a strongly marked gr.tin, 
and is hiownish-yellow in colour. The sui faces are roughly 
^con.d wit'll giC'oves to give a li'Id to tlie glue. Against the 
edus'^ cif this Cure are glued sidc-siri^is (0 h) of a harder 
i'lownmh-red wcioil. with fattened inner and rounded outer 
stu Laces. Thene strips also run tlie whcih- length of the how, 
and ale w I'ler than the thiekness of the Centr.d ccii’e, .iiid, lay 
thus oveiLi]i[.ing its O'lges, make with it a kind of shallow, 
wide channel along each face. Along ca.;h of the-e clianneb 
lie^ a wide of aeiis..- hhick horn (c and d), ]irohahly of 

.'•'iiie kind oi fiuifalo, extending to the e-Xtremilies of the liiiihs. 
Tii'-sc stiips c-x.ictly fll the channeds, the strip along the hack (a) 
heiiig liiiiUiei' thaai that along the hcdly (d), cornmpuiiding with 
the 'iialh'Wer elianneh The inner faces ot the horn strips are 
.'I oivd svith sli-ht grooves, in the s.ane mammr as are the 
cc-utial wd"il,ju cole and .eide‘ strips, to whicli they are friiily 
glued. h)cs-i lying tlie ihieker horn stii[> is a seciaid slii[i of the 
siiii - mat--;i,d : . and of nearly ecpial width, i.ither more than 
y, -inch thi-' k at tlie centre, and hevelleel away to nothing at the 
e lee-t. An ohtuse angle is formed on the oiUsi'le of this striji fas 
SM.-ii ill sc'Ctioig, and tins p>roduce,s a kind of low ridge along 
the- helly of the how in the central line ksceii in Fig. 2). It is 
u t to he aup[io.~otl that horn could he oldaiiieil of sufficient 
hnicth to run the whole length of the how.soit is safetii suppose 
til. It the holu strips are in^a/.';-.;, mi'eting at or near the eeiilre, 
ih'.iiigii \cithout dissection their meeting point is not visible. 



Rj,r ^ii i 'I ll's. 


21 ;-! 

The woo I <.)U the other hand runs rie'ht thrDireh the handle, and 
?i I far as can ho seen the central core runs in a single piece from 
end t'_i end. 

Oveihiiie the thinner horn striji (V) which occiipies the 
shaHiiv,-er channel adunu' the hack of the central core,^ is a thick 
mass of longitudinally disposed sinow-;. taken pr'shahly fr.sin the 
neck or hack of sciine inniinant, which have heen very carefidly 
prepared, and foiin a very hoinogvneons a.nd dense layer, m 
rather layers, for the luas^ is huilt up of two las’ers fr and /’-) of 
sinews, projihly nn.ire t!ian'two>. The thickue^.- of the mass is 
nearly centre of tlie how. liecoming rediueed 

towards the end^s. as is the case with the horn strips. Tliif- 
sinew “hacking'’ is lapped round the edges of the h-jw, and 
enclcise.s the two side snips of wnocl. 

fSTc-ar the ends of the how .sinew.s ate wound tiansversely 
round the whole, so as to liind the jcirts iirinly together, and 
cnahle them to withstand the great strain at these points. 

Sueh then is the coiiU'lex structure of this reuiarkalile l>ow. 
(dveilying the whole is tin.* layer of I'ircli-hark 'y), of a lich 
hrown-red colour, with veiy sinootli and 
glossy, aluio.st .sLitiuy. suiface. It has hcou 
laid on in .smrdd lect.ingular pieces, each 
wound transversely v. aiiid 'not diagonally, 
as is so Usual with niodoiu Asuitic ht.ovs) 
until one edigo meets and jusl civeil.ips the 
other. Tlio ailjaceut I'i' ce.s of hark join 
olio another --o ..s to leave no sp.icc hctwceii, 
and, in this wav ihov looother fcn'iii a coii- 
tiiiuoiis, Wi atiioipvoof 'll Mtii from end to end, at th“ same time 
protecting the da.Ue.i-Lo 'ttucturo of the how, and InUiig its 
coiiiplexitv from view. 

This ho'.v ilihers in sev.n’.d iV'pi-cts from tlie ani.imtrom- 
] ri_, site lii_:\v ill the r.oiliu I.InsC-uiu, descrioed hyllr. von Lu'Ch.an. 
It is rather l.irgoi — 5d> inches, a.s against T.a inches, imasuredi 
aeic=.' til curve, and .o7p iiiohes as ng.iin.st imasuredi along 
thoi.uive. It is soiiicwli.it liicu’e rciloxod. Tlie slia’oe as s,.,.u 
in section, dilfti s, 1 oil, g 111 the presciit how inclined to'vardi' a 
pi/ntagi'iiial form, with the aiigles cvell rounded oif. while in the 
Ileiliu liov.' ll;o 'cctioii at the centre of the haiaile is iicailv 

^ The function <?i the liovu strip fc). intcrposcT between the wdL-len c..>re uuJ 
the ira^'' of i' not cImi*. Jlorii, at> bfiiij; c >'npivs'-il lo. :•? uu exc, ih iit 

^ h!=tai:ce thr the '■>-1' u of u bow. wliicli sul'Tectc'l to ii < so. ' stih ^ "V' hile 
the eldsti'- snu w ' dloim the back are well alapteil to re>isi the lei' = il-' ?train 
threuvii upon tint: part of the tow. The horn seems out of pitUs- on ttie hiu k. 
-Vt anv rate it i^ ni'-'t unusual to ftnel horn in this j'O'ition. It i- the only 
in.'tanee of the kind Inch I have come acros in the exan.iiutun c-f scares o: 
ir.o iern coaipcs-xte bov. s from yari'.us couiitries. 




H. B-VLrorK. — 0/' o /A 

L'iivulal. ai;J at about illa-tliild of llie di^lauoe ulo!i,u llie liiiib-; 
it is I'laaio-eijiivex, apiiroacliing the seiiii-ciicular. The di^}ie>si- 
ti'jii of the Strips of wood foriiiing the main portion of the Ijow. 
diiibrs luaihediy in the two specimens, as may at once he seen 
on e j!u}itiing L)r. von Lusehaii'n sketches (or the plate illus- 
tiutine Tbr. Lrnieman's papei) with the illustrations to this 
pa}'er. A single deepi, iiarrow, ceiitial groove runs along 
the whole length of the IJeiTin Ijow, sunk riglit through 
to the sinew mass, whkh forms the Ixtek of the how. This 
aiLojVe of cour.-^e wa^ originally tille.i either with wood or 
hoiti, b'Ut in what manner, or in what propijition, cannot hie 
asceitaiued. as the whole groove is now empty, and no clue to 
the iLituie of the suhsMii^e or suhstances which once tilled it. 
remains. The presence of lu an as an impivrtant feature in the 
stiuetuie of the how wldch I have descrilied. lends prohahility, 
aliu'.'^t Certainty, to the idea that this material, either partly, oi 
eiitiiviy, filled the groove in the Berlin h.jw. This is rendered 
the uiC'ie likely from the fact of the horn in my specimen 
having suffered severely from tlie white ants, whereas the wood 
i-^ aliii 't intact. The disappearatice of the horn in the Berlin 
how may jioihaps lie accounted for in the same way. 

Altiiongh there are marked differences between these two 
ancient hows, there still can he little (■ptesti.m as to their having 
both come originally from tlte same, or eery nearly the same 
extia-Egypti an region. They are hotli utterly un-Egyptian in 
cTiaiacter. in their general composite structure, and in the fact 
'if their heiiig decidedly letlexed, they leseiulile one another, 
their dillereuee^ being rather in matters of detail. Traces of 
what aeeiiis to have Vieen a covering of hirch-hark are to be seen 
in t!ie Berlin how. and in my spieeinieii this haik envelope is 
i eaiuifully ptceerved. Xeedless to Say that liivJi-hurl a 
'u’istauee kuiovn to tlie Egyptians only a.s introduced from a 
mc'ie niii'thei'ii legion. As viewed in piriflle, there is a striking 
lea jmiiLiiiee between these two hows, in the gentle curves, and 
111 tlie way in which tlie handle is .set hackward. 

we may with practical eertainty assume that these hows 
weie of foieigii introduciioii into Egypt.it remains for us to 
.Kct-it iin a.s far as pos-^ilde their exact pron mi lu < . The pns- 
'liily ilittite or A.'-iyiiaii oiigin of the Beilin how has already 
been s; ecul.itcd ujioii fiy L)r. vuii Lusch.sn ami Mr. Longman, 
who draw attention to the re.semhl nice borne lyy that how to 
tuo-e n [ae.sented in Ilittite and Assyrian sculptures. AAii 
Luseliaii -suggests that thi:^ how had been introduced into Egvpt 
either by foreign ineieenaries or as a spoil of war. The tomh in 
which it was found at Jlielies has been refeiTed hv expierts to 
the time of i; uiiesu II txiX dyiiustyp or. aecordiiig to Mr. 
I’etrie, say fioui about 1275— I'JOS BC. 



215 


iJow II ltd Ai’ivics. 


Xo\T tliere are stroii" reasons for siipr. ntiiri the tlieuiy of an 
Assyrian origin for the bo'>v of the XX^'1 dynasty which I has'e 
described It not only resembles closelv the better representa- 
tions of bows in Assyrian sculisture; in shape ami in the curx'e 
assumed when drawn, and in the way in which the ends curve 
over backwards, but the date of the tomb in which it is saiil to 
have been discovered corresponds with the end of the period 
of tlie Assyrian occupancy of Egypt, ilr. Petrie informs me 
that the Assyrian eomptest in the XXV dynasty was about 
072 c.C'., and lasted till the ri.se of the XXYI dynasty, which 
extended fioni about G04-.325 is.c. 

During tlieir invasions and occupancy of Egypt, Assyrian 
weapons must necessarily have lieen nmaeisjus in the laud, and 
it would be indeed remarkalile if some tla.iuid not have been 
preserved, even after the evacuation of the country liy the 
invaders.' they came in some cases to be deposited in 

the native tombs, in company, as in the present instance, with 
other weapons of purely indigenous character, is uncertain, 
though this is not a matter of paramount importance. Such 
bows may have been valued tropihies, or liave been acquired in 
a variety of ways, and in any case, their complex and beautiful 
structure nmst have favourably impressed a bow-using people 
like the Egyptians, who would have welcoiiied such weapons as 
interesting possessions, and may even in some instances have 
condescended to lay aside the native African single-stave bow, 
tor the newly introduced and eflicient composite how. 'What- 
ever the reason of their having been deposited in Egyptian 
toml)S may be. we must feel grateful for it, since such very 
peri.shable weapons probably owe tlieir preservation to their 
careful interment. 

If further evidence is required to prove an As.syrian origin 
for this bow, such i-^, I venture to tliiiik. supplied by the arrows 
which were found with it. 1 mentioned that with each of tlie 
flows found in the XXVI dynasty tomb, were several of the 
arrows which belonged to them. .Timt as the composite and 
alien liow ditfers trciin the characteristically Egyptian l.iow 
found in the same tomb, so do the arrows found with the 
former differ from those foiuid with the Litter. The arrows 
belongnng to the Egvptian wooden liow are tliemsolves in everv 
way characteristically Egyptian in type, as is clear from the 
nmneious exaiiiples preserved in museums and colleeiious. 
They consist (Fig. Ci) of a fairly stout sliaft of reed, with fore- 
shaft of wood tanged into it. To prevent splitting, the si'Cket 
is whipped with hbivs ^j>ossibly smew.sy which are blackened 

^ Pttr’c, durino; his excavations this year, found a helmet of d>svrifn 
type, together with a number of iron tools of ertirely non-Egyptian character. 



21G H. Balfour. — On a Ri^niarlalh: 

with n kind of hitiuneii. In the complete ^peciineu.s the fore- 
shaft is fumislieJ with a head of cheit (i'lps. G. ~}, with uide 
transveise cutting edee (" chisel-emled so-called ), set in a coin- 
pteition. Avrow.s fitted with heads of this shape are frequently 
shown in aiieient Egyptian re^a'e.sentations of arehery, and 
ap];iear to. have keen much favoured, heiup. no douht. fi'htpte.l 
for cansiiip preat laceration and lueiuonhaee without deep 
jieiietiati .ill. Tlie noek at the hurt end of the shaft is, it is 
important to notice, of a very .simple and cliaiaoteristie kind 
(Fig. 8), cut deeply in the reed end itself just heyond a node 
There were three feathers (half feathers set edgewisej. appar- 
ently ahoiit inches to 2| inches long ; the lines i.if glue which 
fl.ved them are very apparent in .some of the airows. Some of 
the arrow- are clumsier and more roughly finished than the 
i.ither-, and seem to have keen the work of another maker. The 
wings of the nocks in one set are narrow tUid pointed, in the 
other set kro.td and lounded (Fips. 

Turning to the “ Assyrian arrows, well-maiked iliffereiices 
are seen. (Jn the whole, these arrow- are of finer make than the 
Egyptian set. As in the latter, the ‘•Assyrian’’ r,rrows are 
eompo.sed of foreshaft ami .shaft (Fig. 10). The -hafts are cut 
from more slender reed.s than in the others, and vary from 21 j 
inches to 22i inches in length. Tlie hu'eshafts vaiy from 10;|‘ 
inches to 11-J inches in length, and are carefully finished and 
-inootlied: they am sharpened at the tips. S..ime are slightly 
laperc'k others cylindrical almost to tlie ti]', others again are 
slightly •• karrelled." Tliey are very neatly tanged into their 
shaft', the si.jckets having heeii whipped round with fine sinews 
;this kiiidiiig ha.s mostly perished, Lut it.s hrmer (ivesence is 
still manifest). Tn-tead of tlio nock heing cut in the recil end, 
a piece of hard wood, or horn in some case.s, has heeii tanpedi 
into the hutt (Tip. 11), and the nock is cut in this, a luanitest 
iinj.rovenieut uimn the Ep'yi)tian nock, which must always ha'>'e 
keen liaklc to split. Tlirec of the arrows have this hard-veuod 
plug Cuinplctely (.reserved; in two it projects i inch heyoiid 
the reed end, in the other liarely over j- inch. All the arrow ,s 
Were furnished with it, hut only traces remain in most, as, 
heing apparently of horn, they have X'roved more X'erishalile. 
The feathers (whether two or three in muiilicr, 1 am unahle to 
say) were ahout 4 inches long, and set edgewise on the .shafts, 
and were glued and bound with .sinews. Traces of the feathers 
themselves reincdii on some of the arrows. 

A refeic-nce to the A-^syiiau has-i'elief.s in the British Mu.seuia, 
of the time of Assur-nasir-x>al, c. 8.SU b.C., rai which the arrows 
of the X’criod are very clearly rcxireseute!! — spoevs at once 
striking reseinklance.3 to the avrow.s just deseriked. The 



217 


Bijv: oad Aj-iViC'. 

[iieSeiioe ijf ilie iiock-1 leaiiiig liaiu plug of wood ur lioru is well 
iuilicateil in laaiiv of tlie lepnesentations (Figs. 12, Id, 14). 
The lung feathering is another hiiiilred feature. Tin- airuws 
shown in the scuIpLure.s have, it is true, hronze hhale.s, niostlv 
of leaf or luzeiigo '■hape, litteil to them ,,Figs. I,'., jG), hut even 
tins chaiaelei'i.stie is not altogether wanting iu the pieueiit set 
of ,nruws. Together witii thi)'e alicailv (leseiihed, and with 
the ci'imposite how, was fcund a short wood.-n foresliaft, •' 
inches L.iiig. tanged to fit a reed .shaft, and with deep, nariuw 
eoeket at the end. into whieli is litte<l, liv iia-aus of a long, 
nanow tang, a leat-shaped Hade of I.roiize (Fig. 17). The 
blade is li iuehes hy ii-iiicli, and is slightly 'o.igee '' in section. 
The tang niea.-^ures ly^ indies long. 

It may 1)0 fairly admitted that tlie evidence afforded liy the 
arrows is much iu fa.vour th’ the Assyiiaii origin of this archer's 
outfit. 

To sum up lirietly, tlie eviileiice in favciur of the theory of 
the Assyrian nationality of this how with its ariows rests upon 
the iollowing facts ; — 

1. The fuim, Composite structure and nialt-rials of the how 

are entirely iiou-Fgypti, in in character, and point clearlv 
to a more iioitherii origin. Tlie shape coiic.spoi. Is witli 
that of many hows represented iu A.s.-yiian seul[ lure. 

2. The arrows found witli the how. and evid,,-ntly helonging 

to it. are ([uite uou-Egypti m in iy| e, and coiiespi.uid 
closely with arrows ic-pieseiUed iu Assviiau sculpture.s 
of a soiiiinvhat earlier date. 

d. The date of the toiiih (XXYI dynasty) corresponds with 
the eiiil i.if the As'Ciian invasion, which took place 
dniriug the XXV dynasty, ,ind lasted till the lise of 
tlie XXA'I dynasty. 

Vhile it Seems prohahle that this XXVI dynasty how was 
a proiliiet of an iin asion of Fgvpt y'l ■(■//' the Xoith. it appears 
likelv that the Ihimeside how in the I'leilin klmeum may liave 
heeii a relic of an Jygy]itian invasion v/ the Xoith, ohtaiued 
perhaps dauing the punitive t'X])Cililiou of Ihimesu 11 into 
Xoithcrn Syria ag.iiiist the Khita. when lie captureil their 
capital, the island city of Kadcsli on the (droiiles. Syiia, lying 
as it did lietweeii the two giva.t and powerful kingdoms, was 
from very early times the meeting point I'f Fahyluni.iu and 
EgvpUan inlluenee and culture, ami, if we should with Lir. von 
Lusehan legard the Ilaineside how as ‘'Hittite'’ rather than 
Assyri.ui. we can still, from the giographical position and 
political rchitionshi[)S of the ‘'Ilittite kingdom, aeeuuiit fur 
the elosi resemblance to the Assyruu type lU' h.jw, and at the 



218 


II. BaLFOUE. — On O L'.iiiriilyA'I'J 


.same time lur t’le presence of this alien type t'f Lijtv in 
Egvpt. 

Tlieie is a ditt'erence of upwards of 600 years Ijetweeii the 
dates of these two hows, supposing that the dates a -signed to 
them are eeaTect, and we may perhaps regarel the later how as a 
niodihed aii'l improved descenelant of the eailier. Tlds would 
give us two stages in the direct line of evolution of the early 
composite hi uv. 

"When it is considered that the kingdom of Assyria lay near 
to the Southern limit of distribution of the composite how, and 
was situated immediately adjacent to Media and Persia, the 
latter of which, in later times, became famous as the country in 
which the composite how leached its highest perfecti' iu, it will 
he Seen that any exampdes of Assyrian hows which may he 
discovered, must he interesting, not only p-:r sc, hut also from 
the light which they may throw upon the early developmental 
hietory of the higher typ'es of composite how. It is greatly to 
lie hop.ed that more material of this kind may be discovered. 

It mu't Ije admitted that the twolxiwsof composite structure 
hitherto found in Egypt are reniarkahle rather for their diver- 
gence from, than for th.eir resemhlanee to the later Persian and 
othei Asiatic composite hows ; hut we must rememher that in 
ancient times the Scythians'’ were perhaps the most celebrated 
archers, and that it was to them to whom Cyaxares, King of 
Medi.i. aj'P'lied for instruction in archery, and to teach his 
youth- tlie art of using the liow.‘ iKiring that king’s reign, 
moi'ei.iver. tlic Scythians conquered and occupied IMedia. Hence 
We Cull I'eaddly see that a nm'thern typ'e of how may iiave l.ieeii 
graftc'l upon that already familiar to the iMede.s and Persians, 
whieli wi.uld ill all pu-ohability have hecii a type very similar to 
that I 'I t’ueir ucighh' -urs the A-syrian.s. Mo that the '' Assyiirii ’’ 
typie may Lave h-st its individuality through fusion with a 
superior and pjossihly Mongolian type of how, and liave been 
practically super-eh’d by it. P>e this as it may, the modern 
I’cr-iaii and Xorth Indian eoinprosite hows differ coiisideraldv 
in the details of structure from the laoilern IMongolian tvpies, 
and seem to suggest a fusion of two or more typics in early Jays. 

Ill many respect.- these how.s of “Assyrian” typie liear a 
resemlihince to the (Siiuyiosite hows with c/esi sinew liacking of 
iiiaiiy moileni tiihcs of N.Mh America (Os.-age, IModuc, etc.}, 
V. hich I have always inamtaiiied repireseiit the survival of aii 
"O'/;/ in the devidopanent of the higher types of composite 

how.- The two ancient how.s are certainly of more complex 

' Ojore Se Trepi 77oXX.jf iroiEoftcyos airois, TralSas (T(pi irapidoiKe -rijv 
yXacraiw re Upaeitw, km ri.v riy^vr^v tq>v tu^wu.” Hcr-oitotio, “ Hist.,’ I. 73. 

- Ji- urn. Anti. rop. lust.," xi:s, 1690 , yip. 226 anti 211, aiel sxiT, p. r 7. 





210 


ooiistriictioii aud of finer workman^liip, but in general type and 
in tlie eiiigle continuous curve wliicli would Ije assumed when 
strung and drawn, the resemblance to X.^V. American bows 
is manifest. These bows present features which we should 
naturally look for in composite bows of fa/’/i/ type; for the 
composite bow must have originated in an attempt to strengthen 
the pre-existing self-bow, aud such bows as the “ Assyrian ” and 
X.W. American seem to some extent to represent tronsitional 
types between the simply reinforced self-bow and the later 
composites, which show sirecial modifications in structure, 
cciinbiiied with the development of the well-known “ Cupid’s 
ijow ” curves. 

It may Ise askeil, to what extent doe.s the “ Assyrian ” com- 
posite how which I have described, throw light upon the 
.structure of the very curious o'n;/ido.i bow so freipuently repre- 
sented in the Assyrian scnlpture.s ? ilr. Longman, in his paper 
read before the Institute, raised the cpiestion of the possible 
stiucture of angular bows, and endeavoured to account for its 
very peculiar form. In the discussion which followed tlie paper, 
I was obliged to confess myself highly sceptical as regards there 
over having existed actual bows of such a sliape, at least for use 
in archery, and attributed the shape as represented to the per- 
petuation of an artist's error in the delineation, giving reasons 
in support of this view.^ The examinatimi of the present 
Assyrian ” bow certainly in no way confirms the straight- 
limbed, angular bow, as represented, as an actual weapon, as 
nothing in its .stiucture i.s consistent with the fanciful and 
uttmly uiipractic.il sliajie shown in the seulptmvs. Unless we 
are to regard its peculiar delineation as a stereotyped artist’s 
eii'or, the angular b,i\v of the Assyrians must, I venture to 
think, still remain a mystery if not a myth. At least we are 
not yet justified in admitting the angular ijow ns a novi'ni firnus 
01 /ioia -y/o ill the category of Ixiws. It has oecurred to me 
as jimt po'sil'le that the rather abrupt backward setting of the 
handle, oli-ervable in both of the ancient compo,site boivs, may 
have staited the idea of an angular centre in the minds of 
Assyrian aitis'm, themselves perhaps inexperienced in the 
essential points of an etfieient bow, the great exaggeration of 
this peeiiliarity being due to their imaginative minds, and partly 
no doubt to the fact that straight lines could be executed with 
greater facility than curved ones. Once accepted as a picto- 
graph represeiitiiig a bow, there is no reason why the angular 
anomaly .should not have continued to exist as .such, even side 
by side with more realistic representations. I’erhaps the com- 

^ •* Journ. Antiirop. Inst xxiv, pp 55, 50. also *’ Edinbiir^V Eeriow,” July, 
lS05j pp. 37, 



220 H. Balfoui;. — Oa o rtCui'trLjUc Buv: oul Arrovs. 


pletflv duvelripe*! or degraded) angular Low was aarived at only 
l)v a series or C()]'yings Ly (.me artist from aimtliey a 

process wLicli we knoAv is all-puvrerful in tire prodactioii of 
even purely unintentir'iial A’aiiatiou in art ilesigns. 

In eoneludinc. I may add tliat I aiu giving the Low witii its 
arrows tri tiie L)xf.-»rd Uiiiversitv Alu-eiim, as an addition to tlie 
line Seller of ctany-o-ite Lows collected Ly General Pitt-laver', 
wliicL lunns an iin}>oitaut feature in tlie etlin>.*grapliical collec- 
tion presented Ly Iriiu to the Vniveisity. 


Jji-Sii'ijitioii of BloAc-s lA Odd A. 

Fia. 1 — Side Tie'iv cf “A^'rrian *’ bo-x, slio^’inir neneml shape, and ,'ejU.c 
csirvos. Found in a XTltli Dynasty tomb at Thebes. Egypt. 

Fig. 2. — Poi’llon of tue‘'ht‘ny‘’ of the «anu- bow sliowii.cr tlie srooTed imiei’ 
(.ore of wood no. the two >ido strips {Jo Lne low, eentiMl ridge, 
and the lork c<.>Vfriii:I. c. t scale. 

Fig. 3. — Port: >n cf the '* bach*’ of the same, shoeing the bark layer overlying 
the sinew backing " is luteu iiway in places, c. \ scale. 

Fig. 4. — Transvei’se section cut throuch one limb of the bow at a point marked 
A ... A in tig. 1 (fur deseviption of the section see woodcut in the 
text, p. 213). Actual size. 

Fig. u — Ih^yi Laii bu-r of plain wood, found in the same tomb as the above. 

Fig. 0. — Egyptian arrow, with reed shaft, woud foreshaft and stone head set in 
eemi.nr. 

Fig. 7. — Forcshaft and dint head of another Egyptian arrow. 

Fig. S — ilutr of F.oyj-tian arr.''w. ^liouin" no- k cut in the reed end, and trace 
01 tlie glue which held oiic of the feathers. .-Vctual size. 

Fig. 9. — EuU oi another Egyptian arrow showing a different tvpc of no:k. 
Actual >i'e 

Fig 10. — * Asyvrian ■’ arrow, witli reed shaft, pointed wooden foreshart, and 
noi.k-leai’ing hard uood plug. Found with the “ As'vriaii” bow. 

Fig. 11. —Butt cf -l-i'crian ’’ arrow, showing the hai’d wood plug in which the 
nork i- ciit. Actual size. 

Figr. 12, 13, It— Butts of arrow? copied from sculptures o: A'-ur 

A'azir}).il, in the Britisli Museum. Rediued in size. 

Figs. 15. 10 — Heads (bronze bladed) of arrows on the same bas-rehcTs. hlucdi 
redu'-cd. 

Fig. 17. — Forcshafl c: ”Assyr.an*' arrow, v.uth leaf-shayed bronze blade. 

























II. HaI-E. — Fov i’ FLiico'ti JI u.iiijjiiiii Fi-it 


■221 


XovEiiBER 24Tir, lS9o. 

E, . CieaeibjOIy, E> E.S Fi'f :>tdt t/i tJiC CJio.ir. 

The I.Iiuute.s r.f tli" hist ileetinit were reail aii'I sienoh. 

The electiniis OT All-. Ih F. AVir.ivix.s. Ih Er-!;XAi:D, A. Kniiir, 
ami II. AA ELD IlLrxL'ELL as Felluws, auT li. II. AIatiiews. as 
a CijiiA'SpijiiLliiiA Feihjw, were ami'juiieeil. 

Tile ii IlewiiiA' p.rq ler was reail : — ■ 

■ Etliiiepraphie il Antes in A'ew Georgia." Bv Lieut. Boyle 
•I. SC’MEEViLLE, IhX. Illu.stl.lTeil liY the 0[itii;.il Lauteiii. 


Eeoe.mbeu Siir, 1390. 

E. AA . I>riADUOi iK, Es'’|., Fi’c-^tdoL^, iii G. ’ fjimit'. 

The Aliiiutes ijf the l.mt Aleetiiie' were rea l unAi siu’iieJ. 

The eleeti'.iii of T.h’. Bi. AI. t.'eixxiir.LY was amioiuiceil. 

Tile follo'.viiiA' p.iper w.i.e lead hv Prof. E. B. Tyloe, D.C.L. 
F.B.S.;— 


Four Huimx AA'a-mrum IlEcourm: A of 

/•i'll '! H'-' ".A Mii-nuj-iii By Hi ratio 

Hale, ALA... 'H.uvai-d . l-'.B.S., f'.inaiit. Aiutliornf Etliiio- 
p,ra})hY aud I’hihiLiuv nf the I'.S, Expleiiiu' Expedition, 
the IropUdis Bunk uf Bites, eti. 

rv.'iiii I’L.iTi.s .XI, xir, x:ir. xiv.i 

I. 


The IIurox X’.mox. 

It- re.-Iti"U aiiiup.a Am-eriaaii Tiibes — Claim te Pie-eaiiiieii.'r. — Eailv 
lli-tury — Iln.-helia.i — Caitiei'.- A’i-it — LAe of Tul a.-io and tWiinjiniii 
— War ivith ilie Ir. n [la.i.- — lufeit nf tlie lluruii.- and lletie.it tu the 
A\’e-t — The Wend.it — The XeluLCe A,iti'>;i — Vi-it ut ( 'h.inijd du — l£is 
1 )i-.i-ti eiis Lxpeilitieii — The Ii'on'.iui- C'lnCdeiMey — Hiawatha. 

The suniviiip uieinhers ui the Hiiiun n-atini; eveu in its 
]ii-|.seiit hriikeii. di-p.-i'seil. and li.ilf-extinet eunditiuii. >till re- 
t liii the nieiiiurv Ilf their .lueii-nt (d.iiiu tu the lieaii-hip uf all 
the ulioi'ipiiial ti'ibe.s of Aiiieiiea UoIlIi of Alexier'. That there 



22- II. Hale, — Fvu' H’’ rotx M'l'ir^iiiiii 

M'as oriu'iiiiillv ^ouie gouil ^'I’ouiiil. iii tiailitioii anil in cbaraetei'. 
for a claim of this S'Ort, tli'.inL;'h not unite so cxten.sive, must be 
ailniitteil. The Huruns, or V>’enclat, a.s they .shoiikl [u-operly he 
.stylci-l, laToiiueil to the impioilaut Ltroiii', or liimui.>iie stock, 
which is Loiiiiii lulv kiiio'.vii, from its piiiicipal hrancb, a.s tlie 
Irorptriian family, aial which inclui.les, hesiiles the piopei 
Huron ami Iroquois nations, the Attiweiularoiik.s (or neutral 
nation), the Eries, Aiiddste.s, Tu&carora.s, and Cherokees. ail once 
indepen. lent and powerful trihes. though sriiue cif them are now 
extinct. In the whole of Cm-Mexican Ah.uth America, onlv 
tvco .-stocks sui[iassed the Iroiptoiau in population and extent 
of teriitC'i'y, Thesis were the Algonkin-Leiiape' family (or as it 
is now scientifically named, the Algompiian stock'), whose 
widely scattered trihes encompassed the mote condensed Tro- 
yuoian nations in a va.st circuit, which, heginning with the 
Aheiiakis. or Eastlauders, of the Gulf of St, Lawrence, extended 
iioithwestwatd in the Crees of Lahradn.n' and Hudson Bay. and 
the Ojiliwas (or Chippewas) of Lake Superior, to the Blaekfoot 
tiilics of the Eocky Mountains, and thence circled south and 
east to the Arapahoes and Cheyennes of Kansas and Arkansas 
and the Illinoi.--. Shawuees. and ^Miauiis of the Ohio plains, 
reaching the Atlantic again in tlie Powhatans of the Potomac, 
the Lena] ICS of the Delaware, tlie Moiiegans of the Hudson, 
and the Xarnigliansets, Massaclmsetts, and Peiiuhscots of Xew 
England. The otlier eipuilly widespread stock was the 
Atha]:iascan or Tiuneh family, whose northern tribes wander 
over the continent in the wide space between the Xurthern 
Algomiuiun and tlie Arctic Eskimos, while the sonthein 
biraiiches — L'mprpias, Hupas, Xavahos, and Apaclie.s — occupy 
large purtions of Oregon. Californi.i, Xew Mexico, and Arizona. 
A third linguistic family of some note, which has been 
supplied, though incorrectly, to be allied to the Iroquoian — 
the Siouan ('or Dakotan) of the TVe.steru Mississippi prairies, 
deserves notice from the fact that recent re.searche.s have found 
evidence of the former residence of some of its tribes near the 
Atlantic sealioaid, in close contact with those uf the Irorpioian 
and Aleouipuaii stoeks. 

Among all these and other tribes of Xortliern America, the 
Iroguoiaiis held an acknorvledged pre-eminence in intellectual 
vigour and advanced trait.s of polity. wdiicTi have won the 
admiration and the sometimes unwilling respect of almost all 
who have had occasion to treat of them — from the early 
T lancii-'Cau ami 'TesuLt !Misrsionaries to the most eiiliuhteiied 
ethuologists of our <lay — from Sagard, Brebeuf and Charlevoix, 
to (.hdlatiu, Barkinan, and Pn-intoii. Gallatin, in his “ Svnoosis 
of the Indian Tribes,” notices the remaikable fact that while 



H. Hale. — ^out' ITiiivti JJ iiitip-'ni Htcor^l^, l23 

the ■• Five XatioiL^,’" or Iror|Uois proper, were f<3unJ hy 
Champ.lain, (in hi.? arrival iii Canada, to he eiiuayied in a (lea(Ily 
waiiare with all the Algouipiian trdies within their reaeh, 
the Hurons, another Iroipioian nation, " were the head and 
principal support of the Algoii.yaiau confederacy.’’ “The 
extent of their influence and of tire consideration in which 
they are held,” he continues, may be found in the fact that 
CA’en the Delacvares, wlm claimed to be the elder branch of t!ie 
Lenap'j nation, recognised the superiority of the Hurons, wlwtu 
to this day they call their uncles.” The origin of this notable 
‘liffereuce of political sentiment between the two in.iin branches 
(jf the Huron-lroi|uois people had not, when (Tallatiu wrote, 
been discovered. It will he found fully .set forth in iny paper 
on the “Fall of Hochelaga.” 

It will then be seen that in anehut times, I'cfore Cartier 
discovered and explorcMl tier -St. Lawrence Fiver, these two 
tribes, the Humus and the Iroguois, dwelt tou’ethcr in fiien'lly 
uirison on the shores of that river, near the present site of 
Quebec. A i|Uarrel arose, leading to the retreat 'if one of the 
conteirdiug parties to the southern side of the river. Their 
posterity, angmeirted perhaps hy adherents from other refugees 
of Iro'.^uoiau stock, became at la^t the Five C'onfe lerate Tribo.s, 
or nations, who carried on, for many generations, a desperate 
warfare with their northern congener.s and former t’rieiK.ls, the 
Hurons — a warfare ending at la.st in the complete con'inest and 
dispersion of the latter people. During the whole of this 
protracted struggle the Hurons remained, as they had been 
from the beginning, the friendly allies of the Algonrpiians, to 
whom, on the other hand, the IrcKpn.iis Confederates had 
hecoiae deadly enemies. A knowle'lge of these facts, which 
has heen recently g.iined from the traditions of both hranche.s 
of the Huroii-Im.juois people, clerrs up many ohsenrities that 
have heretofore perplexed tlie writers who have dealt with 
tlieir history. It is essential to the correct understanding of 
their waniiium records. 

IVe owe to the narrative of Cartier’s V'jyages our earliest 
acgu.iintancc with the Hurons. who were thus the tirst of 
Xorth A\neriean Indians to become known to European 
visitors. In the autumn of Ib.’bl, Cartier with his little 
sipiadron of three small vessels, the large.'-t not exceeding 120 
tolls, ascciidcil the great stream whieh the natives knew as the 
river of Hochi-lag.i, hut which he christened tlie St. Lawrence. 
He fouiiil its shores above its great tributary, tlie Saguenav. 
occupied by sedentary tribes, whose language ami customs, as 
recoided in his narrative, .show them to have belonged to the 
IIurou-Iro.|U'.'i3 family. Two of their custonis are particidarly 



224 II. Hale . — Fuirr Huron Wan'iii'ni Fc- . -.-Ji. 

(li'.=!ervina' of note in connectiijn with onr present subject. 
The^e natives were much aiklietecl to the use of tijbacco. The 
natives Were accustonieJ to lay up in summer a yreat store of 
its loaves, which were drieil for the winter, fhily the men 
used it. Eveiy man cairied at his neck a skin poucli con- 
taining a rpaantity of it, which lie smoked in a pipe of -tone or 
wood. This, they said, kejat them healthy and warm, and they 
were never luuiid without it. Ihit the most highly valued of 
all their possesdons was that which tliey called an 

ornament made of beads, which they fashioned from shell.e 
found ill the liver. " These bea.ils,” say- the writer, “■ they use 
as we do gr,ld nml silver, and deem them the most precious 
thing in the woild.'’ Thev used them, it eeem-, chieiiy in the 
form of '■ chains ''' and collar.-," oi as Engli-h writers at a 
later dar have been wont to style them, strings and helts. 
'When (faitier. in the following year, treaeheroiiely seized at 
ytadacoud the chief of that town to cc.iivey him to France, his 
people, in the hope isf redeeming him, preseuted to the captain 
twentv-f mr collars of i which the writer repeats," is 

the gieatc-st treasure whicdi they have in the world, f.ir thev 
prize it al'ove gold and .-ilver.” The name wnov/ay is 
apparently an aiteiuj.t to expiess in French orthography the 
Iroguois ( ilefined bv iliuyas in hi.- dictioncrv as roiln r 

■ U "). with tlie pronominal < meaning " thy " pretixed. 

•• Your waminini belt.s,” cried the bcScOcldiig people, extending 
tlic-ir precious ran-om to the unrelenting kidnapper, secure 
behind the tenvirs of his aitillerv,* 

The '•Icingdom of IIo'JiLlaga.," as Caitier stiles it. couipiiseu, 
besides the t'ortificil ’ city’’ of that name, the important town 
of .Stad,acnne (romnionly known to its people as CnnaJi', or 
"the town "j. and eiglit or nine other towns a.loiig the great 
river. All these were at this time waging a de-perate warfare 
against a peoiplc dwelling sontli of them, whom tliev knew as 
the Toiulaniani, a name in which some have thought to trace a 
rorru[ition of T.sonontowaiie, the native appellation of the 
.Seiicca,, who were the nio^t poweifid of the Ii'oipiois iiatiuiis, 
and wv-rc deemed by tbe Huron- their most deternuiied and 
foriiii'lable enemies. This iiiterpretatiou seems plau-ible enough. 
All th e circum-tance- render it probable that Hoelielaga, at the 
time of CartieTs vi-it. was tottering to its fall befoie tlie attacks 

^ .A- ipi.-tinn iia- arisen a- to tlie nature, or ratlicr tlie luiteri.il, of tlii- 
yi'iV'a//, T niav ir.ention tli.it a reeeiit eiaumuniLatioii i^itli uIiilK I liaae been 
faToure.t hv Sir J. William Daw-on, wlio has laailj a careful stud-, of the iub- 
iect, u'lvt-' the dcciiive information that ‘'the only sliell-beadi found in the 
leu-aratioTi- on tlie -ite of Ilochelaga, in rlddlim; the kitrhen-imdden -tuff 
tliroich fine -lere-, are small hca.U of the ordinary form, nude am aieie.h of 
the sbelis of a iinio. ’ ' i i . 



H. Hale. — Fvui^ ITdvoti TJ unijyu'ui Fc‘'<jj\Is, 


225 


U 


of tlie Confederate Iroquois tribes. After its overthrow, the 
vanquished Hurous, in retreating westward, seem to have taken 
two widely separate route.s. One party of them, as related by 
the native historian, Peter Dooyentate Clarke, fled to the south- 
west under their great chief, who bore the title of Sastaretsi. 
Keeping at first near the St. Lawrence, they afterward.s diverged 
northwardly, until they found what seemed a secure refuge 
among the Blue Alouiitaius, in a uook of the Greorgiau Bay of 
Lake Huron, ^ In their new abode they were known, if not 
among themselves at least to other nations, as the Tiouoiitate, 
or “ People beyond the Mouutaius,” and also to the whites as 
the JVatioii dii FiJun, or the Tobacco Katiou. They cultivated a 
choice description of tobacco, which they sold — “thus offering,'" 
as Parkman remarks, “ an e.vample extremely rare among 
Indians, of a tribe raising a crop for the market.”-^ It seem^ 
highly probable that this nation comprised the direct descen- 
dants of the former inhahitants of the city of Hochelaga itself. 
Though not very numerous, they are held to be at the head of 
all the Huron-Iroquois people. According to their tradition, 
preserved by La Iloiitan, “ the name of their leader, Sastaretsi. 
had been kept up by descent for seven or eight hundred years." 
Even after their expulsion hy tlie Iroipiois from tlie Blue 
Mountains they continued to hold, as Parkman writes, “ a 
paramount iniluenee among the western nations, and were, 
among these allies, according to Charlevoix, the soul of all 
councils. 

The larger body of Hurous who had been the .subjects or 
allies of Hochelaga seem, after the overthrow of tliis cax'ital, 
to have migrated in a more nortlierly direction, following the 
Ottawa Piver, and tluis gaining the aid of their Algmiqiiiaii 
friends in beating otf their Iroiptois pursuers. Their final 
refuge was found in the fertile and inviting region betwee!t 

‘ Tlieso mouiitaii'.s lie so far out of tlic onlmary routes of travel ns to 1 h‘ 
little known even in western Ontario. For the following clear descrn lion of 
tlieiii I am inclebtoJ to Dr. George Dawson, C.IM.G.. Director of the Geo- 
logical Survey of Canada: — ‘‘Tae Blue Mountains are a more than U'liallv 
elevated part of the ^"iagara limestone esearpuient, or ridge, which runs ai ross 
Ontario and out in the promontory between Lake Huron and theGeorgiau Bay. 
The tract so termed is central in Collingwood township, extending nv>rth fioia 
about Ojprey nearly to the lake shore. The highest part is about l.bOO feet 
above the sea. Sereral important streams ri-se from them and tlow south. " 

- A probable etymology of the name “ Tro»piois ’’ refers it to tins source, see 
the “ Iroquois Book of Rites.’’ Appendix. Note A (p. 171) : — “According to 
Bruyas, the word garokira meant a pipe and also a jiiece of tub icco, and in it'* 
verbal form, “ to smoke.’’ Jn the iiidetcrininate form the verb become- !e.-ok -'a. 
which is certtiinly very near to Iroquois. It might bo rendered ‘ tliey uhu 
smoke,” or ‘‘they who use tobacco.” or brietly, the tobacco peojde.’' The 
Iroquois were well known for their cultivation of this plant, of which they had 
a choh-e variety.” 

VOL. xxvi. 



:]2J II. Hale — Ti'V r IIi' njn M 

Lake Simcne and tlie Georgian Bay, wliicli at tliis day one 
Ilf tlie nio^t attractive poitioiis of the Brovince of Ontario. 
Their country wa? reckoned by them to loe about two days’ 
journey east of that of tlie Tobacco Xation. c'ith whom they 
were destined to be again united in a common ruin. But, for 
a con.siderable time, they remained a .separate community, a 
confederacy of five distinct tribe.s, similar in some respects to 
tlie iarnous " Iropuois League,’’ though much lociser in its 
organisation and le^s effective. Here, in IGl-i, they were 
found by Champlain, when he came to summon them for 
his disastrous expedition against the Iroquois. His first view 
of their country is thus desoribeil hy I’arkman in his ‘'Pioneers 
of France in the Xew AVorld ’’ ; — '• To the eye of Champlain, 
accustomed to the desolation he had left hehiud, it seemed a 
laml of beauty and abundance. He reached at last a broad 
opening in the forest, with fields of maize, pumpkins riiiening 
ill the sun, patches of .sunflowers, from the seed* of which the 
Indians mada^ hair-oil, and. in the midst, the Huron town of 
Gtoiiacha. In all essential jioiiits it resembled that which 
Cartier, eighty years fiefore. had seen at IMontreal : the same 
triple palisade of crossed an 1 intersecting trunks, and the same 
long lodges of bark, each containing several families. Here, 
within an area of oO or 4d miles, wa.s the seat of one of the 
most remaikal'le .savage communities on the continent. By the 
Indian standard it was a mighty nation ; yet the entire Huron 
jiopnlation did not exceed that of a third or fourth class American 
city.’’ 

The ill-advised attack of Champlain and liLs Huron allies upon 
tlm Ii'or|uois Confederates, ending in defeat and flight, had most 
serious con^cipiences. not only for the combatants directly con- 
cerned, but for the whole continent. It aroused the animosity 
of the Five Lhiited Xation, s agv.in-t both Canada and the Hurons 
to the highest pitch, and brought on a lung and deadly warfare 
vliich soon ruined the Huron nation, and in time .-'O weakened 
their white allies as to lead finally to the coiuptest of Canada 
by the British. "Wliile the persi.steiit energy and far-seeing 
sagsu itv of the united Iroquois tribes have been much admired 
and liiuhly lauded, they have been at the same time severely 
coiiilenined for cruelty, ferocity, ami bloodthirstiness. Both the 
prai-e and the hlame have in a large measure been awarded in 
error, merely because the grounds and results of their action 
Inve not been correctly uudeiAteiod If they had remained as 
they Were when they qtiarrelled with their Hiuon Cousins and 
fleil to the region .south of the St. Lawrence, much that has 
been said of them would have been just, and much nn.ire would 
Lave been inappropraite. But in the meantime a remarkable 



H. Hale. — Foui Huron Wurapum EecorJ.s. 


227 


change had taken place in their character, a change which 
recalls that which is believed by historians to have been 
developed in the character of the Spartans under the insti- 
tutions of Lycurgus, and the similar change whi(:h is known 
to have appeared in the character of the Arabians under the 
influence of the Mohammedan precepts. A great reformer 
had arisen, in the per.son of the Onondaga chief, Hiawatha, 
who, imbued with an overmastering idea, had inspired his 
people with a spirit of self-sacrifice, which stopped at no 
obstacle in the deterininatiou of carrying into effect their 
teacher's sublime purpose. This purpose was the establish- 
ment of universal peace. All who acceded to this object 
were to be heartily welcomed; all who refused and opposed 
were to be overbrn'iie bv any means and compellecl into 
accpiiescence. "When Gallatin wrote, in 1836, these facts 
and motives were unknown. It thus happened that while 
lauding highly the remarkable aldlity and “cultivated intelli- 
gence ” of the Iroquois, he was led to rank them “ among 
tlte worst of conquerors.” “They conquered,” he declared, 
“ only to destroy, and it would seem, solely to gratify their 
instinct for blood.” Xothing could be more unjust, or more 
contrary to the historical facts, when tliese are rightly under- 
stood. Impartial inquiry will sliow that in every instance 
when, after the League of Peace was established by Hiawatha, 
the Iroquois entered upon a war, it was begun in self-defence, 
and that as soon as their enemy’s resistance ceased, slaugditer 
ceased with it. At the close of the long warfare in which 
Champlain and his Hurons and Algonquiau friends took part, 
great numbers of Gjibwas entered into friendlj' alliance with 
the Iroquois, gveat numbers of otlier Algoiiquiaus — Delawares, 
Mohigans, and Conoys — remained as protected tribute-rendering 
dependents; and thousands of .surviving Hurons, Attiwendaronks, 
Erics, and other conquered peoples, had Ireen incorporated with 
the nati(jns of the League, while no less than four fiieudlv 
nations, the Tusearoras, Tutelos, Xaiiticokes, and a branch of 
the Delawares, had been, at their own reque-t, admitted as 
meml)ers of the League. In view of their magnanimous poliev, 
exhibited in thus sparing all who submitted, and welcoming all 
who wished to join them, the Iroquois Confederates have been 
stvled bv a well-informed and most intelligent writer, Governor 
De Witt Clinton, “the Homans of the West.'’ For other facts 
relating to this subj.ect, I must refer to my papers, eU’ which the 
titles are here given. 



228 


H. Hale. — Fvv i' Hitcii Jf ai/ijiKjit Fi.cui'J}. 


II. 

Later History or the Hueoxs. 

Fiiifil Iiefeat and Di-jiersal — Some Eeturn to Quebec— Xew Lorette — 
Two Towns join the Iroquois ;iuJ receive Liberal Treatment — The 
Tobacco Xation Flee to Lake Superior — Keturn to Michigan — Settle 
nefii- Detroit — Alliance with Aloonqiiiaii Tribes — Emigration to the 
Sciiitli-west — ’Wyandot Reservation — Aiiderdoii Reserve — Present Con- 
dition. 

The stiiiy of the fortmie.s wliicli hefel the Hurons after 
their final defeat is instructive. 'While .some of them took 
refuge aiiioiig the Eries, Auda.ste.s, and otiier yet imcoiujuered 
trihes of the Huron-Iroqucii.s stock, set'eral hundreds of 
Christian converts tied east waul to the ancient abode, near 
Quebec, from wdiioh their forefathet.s had been driven, a 
century before, liv their Iroquois enemies. There, at what is 
known as Xew Lorette, their descendants remain to this day, 
a half-caste people, French in complexion, language and religion, 
but Indian in liahits and character, a favourite study of 
travellers. At tlie .'ame time, two entire towns of the Hurons 
adopted what would have seemed a desperate expedient, if 
they had r.rit known that the loudly proclaimed clemency of 
their conquerors was not a snare, hut a settled part of their 
constitutional policv. They iletermincd to .ci.Iicit an uncon- 
ditional admission into the Seneca nation, tlie most powerful 
and must persistent of their enemies. Their oiler was at once 
accepted, and on tlie most liberal terms. Tiiey were not 
scattered as captives among their conquerois, hut were allowed 
to form a town by themselves, thougli in conjunction with 
some other refugees who had been previou.sly admitted on 
similar terms of grace. “ Here,” writes the Missionary 

Ilagueneau, in the Relation of IGol, '■ thev are now living 
as quietly as if they liad never known war.’’ Xineteen years 
later, the [Missionary Ifremin found them .still dwelling peace- 
ably in their town, ( landongarae, on friendly terms ahke with 
their fellow refugees and their Iroquois conquerors, and pre- 
ser\iiig wfith fervent devrition the Chihstian fiuth which they 
had accepted Ijefore their change of abode, and the profession 
of whieli, instead of occasioning displeasure, had gained them 
lespect aiiKiiig the .surrounding heathen. Thus, according to 
the testimony of the lui.ssionaiies themselves, tlio Iroquois, 
whom their earlier reports depict as the most iiiiplacaljle and 
feioeious of enemies, had become, under the institutions of 
Hiawatha, the most merciful and geiieroius of conquerors. 

The people of Hastaretsi disclaimed to adopit either expe- 



H. Hale. — Four Huron Wompuni Eeconls. 


229 


dieut. They vroukl neither seek shelter under the cannon of 
Quebec, nor accept the mercy of their hereditary enemies. 
They had, h^r a full century, since their flight from Hochelaga, 
chvelt in proud isolation in their mountain retreat. It was 
only about ten years l)eiore the final dispersion of the IVendat 
tribes that they had consented to join them, and make the 
sixth member of their confederacy, in the struggle against the 
common enemy. The name of Wendat (pronounced as if spelt 
in English Waindat)^ which they thus assumed, was for them 
hardly an exact designation, though, under the form of 
Wyandot, it became the appellation by which they were 
henceforth to be generally known. It signifies literally 
“ people of one speech.” being compounded, Indian fashion, 
from the words IFcndu, language, and the radical portion 
(rtf) of s/.'rtf, one. ISut careful inquhles, made during two visits 
to the survivors of this highly conservative people, showed 
that their language diflered in some respects very decidedly 
from that of the proper Wendat tribes, and had preserved, 
in especial, one remarkable relic of the original Hochelagan 
speech which the others had lost. This was the labial articu- 
lation ui, which has disappeared from every other Huron- 
Irocpiois dialect, except that of the ecpially conservative 
Cherokees.^ While accepting the name of Wendat, the de- 
scendants of the Tionontate people retain to the present day 
this and other relics of their ancient tongue. Their spirit 
■of haughty independence remained unbroken. Welcoming 
all the members of the other Huron bauds who chose to claim 
refuge among them, they betook themselves to their canoes, and 
sought at fir.-5t in Michigan, and afterward.s in the westernmost 
recesses of Lake Superior, an asylum from their persistent 
enemies. Their farthest flight brought them to the country of the 
suspicious and quarrelsome Sioux, the hereditary enemies of the 
Hurons’ Ojibwa allies. From this uncomfortable neighbourhood 
they turned back, and gradually made their way eastward 
towards the vicinity of their former home. They settled for 
a time in or near the island of Michilimackinac, and finally 
fixed iqion a pleasant abode, on both sides of the Detroit Eiver, 
in the midst of their Algonquiau friends, the Ojibwas, Ottawas, 
and others, and under the jarotection of the newly established 
French fort, Pontchartrain. Here, in the wars which prevailed 
among their successive giiai’dians, the French, English, and 
revolted colonists, and through the abortive conspiracy of 
Pontiac, they underwent many vicissitudes, but managed to 
retain their lands and their highly prized autonomy. Mean- 

^ See on tins point fuller particulars in Hale’s “ Indian Migrations as evi- 
denced by Language,’’ in ‘‘ American Antiquaries,’’ 18S3. 



230 


H. Hale. — Foi'i’ Tluixin IJ nuinuin Uccvri^s. 

■wliile their numl'er? hah JwindleJ, and Ly the year 1840 had 
become reduced to about a thousand, of whom less tliaii two 
hundred remained in Canada dVest, the rest l>eiuu scattered 
in .se^■elal bunds throuyli the States of ^lieliiitan and h»ldo. 
Shoitlv afterwards, on the invitation of the American Govern- 
meut, the majority of the nation, some eight hundred persons, 
decided to remove to the .south-west, at first in Kansas, and 
ultimately to the Indian Teriitorv. Here the remnant, reduced 
by the sufferings and illness which invariably accompany an 
Indi.iii migiation, to less than half their original number, now 
reside. The population of their Wyanrlot Ileservation,” of 
21.4Ch) acies. was in 1889, according to the otficial return^, 
only 279 persons ; but these were, it Is evident, a civilized 
people, all " wearing citizens'’ dress," nearly all '• able to read,’’ 
possessing three church buildings, and reporting 120 church 
members. They had 9,000 acres of land fenced, on which 
they gathered during the year 2.3.000 hushels of Indian corn, 
2,000 bushels of wheat, and 750 tons of hay, with other crop.s, 
and pastured 2.:.0 hoises, 800 cattle, and ooO sheep. Those 
who remained in tlieir small Canadian tract of 7,700 acre.®, 
known as the '• Auderdoii Ileserve,'’ near Amherstburg, on the 
Detroit Tiiver, gcA'e evtn better evidence of progress. I visited 
them twice, in 1872 au<l 1874. and found them living in a 
comfortable style, very like that of their white neighbour.s, 
with M'hoin they mingled fieely, eviiicingf no inferiority in 
intelligence or chai’acter. They numbeied then only about 
sixty. The best evidence of their progress and pirosperity is 
found in the fact that in 1884 their number had incren.sed to 
eighty-eight, and nearly the whole of them had ceased to be 
■‘Indians under tutelage.’’ According to the Government 
Eepui't of that year, the large majority ha<l been enfranchised 
during- the previous year. ■“ Having .served the term of pro- 
bati(m reipiired by law, they bad received letters patent, 
conveying to them in fee simple the lands individually as- 
.sigiied to them-elve-; and their families." Thus the once 
proud and powerful Huron people, wIkjsc ancestors wedeomed 
Cartier, and faithfully su-^taiiied Champlain and the French 
colonists in their wars with the Irorpiols and the English, 
more than three hundred years ago, have in our day shrunk 
to three insignificant and widely scattered communities, 
numl>oring altogether loss than .seven hundred menihers, but 
still retaining e\ ery\\ here the indomitable spirit of indepen- 
dence and s(lf-reliance which makes them, next to their near 
Ii'ofpioian kindred (unless we .should also perhaps except their 
more distant (dierokee congener.s), the mo.-t creditable repre- 
sentatives of the American aboriginal race. 



H. Hale. — Four FLuron Wumpuhi Ficcords. 231 

During luy vi^it.s to tlie AnJercIoii Deserve, I received, from 
the two le.iding member.s of the band, Joseph White, the Chief, 
and Alexander Clarke, the Govemmeiit Interpreter, and also 
on one oeca.siun from Alexander’.s brother, Peter Clarke, the 
author of the " C)rigm and Traditional Histoiy of the 
AVyandotts,’ who happened to be there on a viAt to the 
Reserve from his home in the U.S. Indian Territory, much 
information concerning the larrguage, tiaditiorrs, and custom.s 
of their people. All these were, like most of their tribesmen, 
persons of liulf-bLjod, “■ IMr. White,” as he was commonly called, 
being hr part of French origin, arrd the two Clarkes beirrg the 
sons of an English military officer who hud settled in Carrada 
and taken a "W'yarrdot wife. All had had sorrre schooling, but 
had been brorrght up anrorrg their Indian kirrdred, and were 
fully irnlaied with Irrdiair beliefs and sentiments. Each had 
his Indian name, given by his native kindred, with no more 
special reference to the bearer than the urdirravy rrairres of 
white children. The chief was named iFadoronii, having the 
whiursieally irrappropriate rrreauiug, for a man of his fiarrk and 
kindly dispiisition, of “we are nnwilling.” The tall and stalwart 
interpreter might, no doirl.)t, have wielded with effect the “ war- 
cduh” .jditJift). which he claimed as his name. The meairiirg of 
his hrothei's native name, Dooyentate (which appears oir the 
title-page of his book), I omitted to obtain. The acciiuirts 
which I received front them of the primitive religious beliefs 
of their people agreed precisely with those related in the 
earliest missionary narratives, especially those of the Fran- 
cDeair Sagarrl, arrd the Jesuits Brebeuf and Eagirerieau. .'siuue 
folk-stories, apparently of later (Higin, harmonized with them : 
while still others bore urarks of foreigtr arrd irr some cases of 
nri.s.sionary origin. A few of these stories have been published 
in the "American Journal of Folk-Lc.itv.'’ The most important 
historical tradition, derived in the first instance from Chief 
Jlandororrg, arrd afterwards coirtirrned in its main particulars 
by Peter Clarkes History, was arr rruexpeeted revelation, 'whieli 
is ernl)odied irr ury paper, "Tire Fall of Hochelaga.'’ 

III. 

The IIlrox Wampoi Pecoeds. 

Their Number aird Ili-tory — Partition at Division cf Tribe — Araimfacture 
and Use of tVanipuiii — Attempts to Counterfeit — Ditference between 
Early and Recent Be.td.s. 

Of native records, in the form of wanrpum belts, the 
Wyarrdots Ir.id a large store. The chief, in speaking of this, 
as he reuierubered it before the divisiorr of the tribe, atlirrned 



232 \l. YixU'.—Fui'r Hn.-vn JV,‘ /t. 

tlii.t tiiere were belts eiioiigli, if spreful out, to cover tlie fli.cjr 
of the room in wLicli we sat, — a liirm-huiise pailuiir a’uout 
13 leet siputre. t'larke makes special mention of them in his 
hirtorv, as contained in a large trunk, and as the ohj'eet of 
' e('uliar solicitude. During the last decade of the oighteentli. 
oentury they Wcie placed in charge of a Huron chief, named 
I’eter Brown, tvlio was of purely English origin. He had been 
carried off by a Huron marauding party from a frontier settle- 
ment of Ahiginia, on his way to school,’’ at the age of eight 
r'ears. He was brought to Michigan, adnpted L\' a "Wyandot 
family, anel when he grew iiji, married a ’Wyandot rvuman, 
w'hrmi Clarke affirms to have been Ids own maternal grand- 
mother. Tlius we learn that Clarke’s mother had the attrac- 
tions of an English half-caste, with doubtless some knowledge 
of English speech and of civilised habits, to caj>tivate her 
militaiy lover and husband. The story introduces into our 
history an element of romance which novel writeis have been 
fond of dealing with, and of which the real life of the last 
century in Amerii.a presented many examples. 

About this time.” Clarke tells us, '■ the king, or head-chief, 
of tlie AVyandotts, Sut-staw-ra-tse [Sastaretsi] called a meeting 
at the liouse of Chief Adam Brown, who liad charge of the 
archive.'!, which consi.sted of wampum belts, parchments, &c.. 
contained in a large trunk. One by one they were brought out 
and shown to the assemliled chiefs and warriors. Chief Brown 
wrote on a piece of paper, and tacked it to each wampum belt, 
designating the compact or treaty it represented, after it had 
been explained from memory by the chiefs appointed for that pur- 
pose. There sat before tliem their venerable king, in wliose head 
were stored the hidden contents of each wampiim-helt, listen- 
ing to the icliearsal, and occasionally correcting the speaker 
!Uid pnffting liim ou the liglit track wlienever he deviated.’’ 
'■ The head-chief who presided on this occa.sion for the last 
time, " contiime.s tlie historian, “ was the last lineal descendant 
of hi.s race of pure 'Wyandot blood. His lamp of life went out 
at the close ot this decade — between tlie years 1700 and 1801. 
None can now be found among the remnant of bis nation but 
whul, are either mixed with the whites or with Tmlian blood of 
other tribes.” 

M'hat heeame of the^e records was explained to me by Chief 
’White, whose explanation was fully continued by Chirke’.s 
History, and is thus recordeil in my journal : — When the 
majority of tlie jieople removed to the south-west, tliey 
demanrteil to have the belts, as these might he a safeguard to 
them. Some of these belts recorded treaties of alliance or of 
peace with other tribes which were now residing in that region. 



II. Hale. — Hi' /‘Oti M uhiputii Fd^oyn'ii. 


and it iiiiglit lie of great importauce for tiie Wyaudots to be 
able to produce and refer to them. The ju.stice of this claim 
was admitted, and they were allowed to have the greater part 
of the belts. They left those which related to the title of the 
Indian lands in Canada, to the adoption of the Christian 
religion, and a few others.” The chief did not clearly reiiiem- 
ber, witli regard to all the belts he had, what precise event 
each was intended to commemorate. He said that tlio belts 
which he knew Isest were those which had been taken away. 
He had often heard them " read,” in former times, by the old 
chiefs ; but of course, of late years, since tiie majority of the 
people went away, the remaining belts have been little but 
useless lumber. Tire written explanations attached to them by 
Chief Brown have disappeared. It may he adiled that, in the 
Indian estimate, the only documentary value of the wampum 
record is its actual present utility as evidence of a subsisting 
treaty or land-right. To any merely aielimological purpose 
which it may serve they are entirely iuditlerent. The chief 
said that he had some holts vhich were his private property, 
and which he could sell to me. I inferred that they were belts 
which lunl ceased to he of practical use, and wliich rlie former 
wauipum-kee['ers, in accordance with tribal usage, had left at 
hi.s disposal. 

Tl'.e four belts which I obtained from him in my different 
.visits, and which are now to be described, were such as had thus 
ccuscd to Ije of use as political documents, wliile they yet remain 
records of ihe highest historical and arclueological interest (see 
Plate XI). They belong, as appears by various evidences, to two 
distinct eras and categories. Three of them date hack to the 
era of Champlain and the -Tesnit ^Missions, and refer to events of 
signal iinpoi'tance, which occurred near the close of that epoch. 
The fourth belongs to the later period of the return of the 
Hurous to the east, and their settlement near Detroit under 
the protection of the French, about tlie beginning of the 
eighteenth century. The external difference between the two 
classes of belts is striking at the tirst glance. The older belts 
are entirely of native make ; the later one is formed of similar 
materials, which have lieeii put together by Indian hands, but 
the shell-beads and perliaps in part the stiiiigs which unite 
them liave been procured from white men. In the older belts 
there is no uniformity in the size of tlie heads, some of them 
being twice as large as others. It is evident that they were 
inaile by hand, a work to which only Indian patience could be 
ei|iutl ; while the later hcad.s of nearly uniform size, were as 
evidently wrought by a lathe. It is a curious fact that in the 
space of less than two centuries which has elapsed since the 



234 


H. Hale. — I'our II-.uu/i H u niini m ToxorJ^. 

Indians cea.sed to manufactnre wampum, the knowlt- J,ue not 
merelv of their forofatheis’ mode of making it, hut of the fact 
that it was an article of native workmanship, lias in some 
tiihes been lost. Important national events in their past historv, 
such as wars and migrations, are vividly recalled, but minor 
matters have faded from memory. To my great surprise, the 
AVyandot historian, Peter Claike, in our first conversation, 
assured me positivelt’ that the Indians had never made wam- 
pum beads, aud seemed insulted wlietr I ventrrred to eorieet 
him. I afterwards fouuil the reason of his sensitiveness in the 
fact tint he had recorded his opinion in a footnote of his 
history, whicli reads as follows ; — “ Wampum is mairirfaetured 
from a species of sea-shell, expres-ly for Indian^, by Europeans, 
perforated (lengthwi.se) tubes, about i-iiieli irr diameter and 
I -inch in length, aud of a mixed light and dark-puiple colour. 
The tuIies are fastened together with strong thread or ligament 
into Iielts, from -5 to 7 inches in width, aud from 24 to 40 inches 
in length." Unfortunately, I had not at hand a volume of 
Sagard’s •' Journey to the Huron Country," with which I might 
have instructed aud perhaps soothed and gratified my too 
sensitive disputant. I could have shown him the passage in 
which the good Franciscan Missionarv, in his edition of 1032 
(just two hundred years earlier than Clarke’s publication), des- 
cribes the process of making these po" rcdi.i nuji, as he styles the 
wampum beads. •• They are made." he says, " of the substance 
{ids ui) of those great sea-shells which are called conchs 
{ri'jiv.ih), resembling snails. These they cut into small pieces, 
then polish them on a stone, perforate them, and make of them 
collars and armlets. It is a work of great pains and hihour, 
owing to the hardness of their substance, whieh is cpute a 
diftci'eiit thing from our ivnry. This they value little beside 
their porcelain, which is handsomer aud whiter.” It is a .some- 
what amusing reflection that one of the ingenious Hurons 
whom Sagard saw engagc-d in the wampum-making process, 
which he so pithily describe.^ may have been an ancestor of the 
sceptic.il Clarke himself. 

It is pi’iipcr t(j notice tliat ihougli many attempts were made 
to counterfeit the wampum, liy I)iitch and English colonists, 
.soon after their settlement on the Atlantic sea-board, these 
attempts Were for a lung period only partially suceessful. 
kliieh information on this subject is collected by Mr. 4V. H. 
Holmes in his exeelleul moiiograpli on '‘Art in shell of the 
Ancient Americans,” published in the “ Second Annual IJeport 
of the American llureau of Ethnology.” Thus, Thomas Morton, 
of Massachusetts, writing in IGurt of the Xew England Indian.s 
ami their wampum lieads, which then “passed cuireut as monev 



H. Hale. — Four Hi'ron Waiopiun Focti’h. 23-5 

in all part? of Xew England, from one end of the coast to the 
other.” tells us that though some of the colonists ‘‘ had en- 
deavoured to make the same beads, of the same kind of .shells, 
yet none had ever yet attained any good success, as the salvaiies 
have found a great diflerence to be in the one and the other, 
and have kitotvn the counterfeit beads from those of their own 
making and iloe slight them.” Xearly a century later, the 
surveyor Lawson, ot Carolina, descriliing the same inonev, tells 
us that “ the shells of which it is made are very large and hard, 
so that they are very difficult to cut. Some Engli.'h smiths,” 
he adds, “ have tried to drill this sort of sheil-money, and 
thereby thought to get an advantage; but it proved so hard that 
nothing could be gained.” The introduction of the machine 
drill could not have made much difference in this respect, as 
each bead mu«t still be fashioned separately by a white workman 
whose time was much more valuatde tliati that of an Indian. 
That which finally gave the English beads the advantage was 
not the superiority or the cheapness of the workmanship, but 
the destruction of the Indian workmen. The cpiaiter of a 
century which followed the pmldication of Lawson’s book, from 
1711 to 1740, 'aw the extermination of most of the Caroliiia 
tribes and a great decline in the number of all the Xorthern 
Indians. It was during this peiiod that the wampum making 
industry seems to have ceased among them, ami the use of 
machine-made Leads to liave I'ecome so nniversal that some 
respectable writers of a later period, such as Lo.skiel and 
Hutchinson, who on points witliin their own knowledge are of 
good authority, were led to dcaibt wliether the Indians ever made 
many of these beads. A reference to the older writers and the 
testimony of the monnds puts this point heyond rpiestion. 

The practice of making and using wampum belts and string.? 
of the purchased bea<ls .still survived for a ceutiirv lom ter. Tiie 
work, as a general rule, was k-ft to he done liy the women, and 
the method remained the same as it was in the oldest historical 
times, though tliere wa' .some cliange in tlie textile materials. 
The strings of native liemp, hark filaments, deor'kiii, and sinew, 
on which the beads bad been strung and interwoven, gave place 
to foreign twine, including silken thread. In fact, these 
matciials, winch had been obtained by the Indians in their 
traffic, are found to have heeii ii.sed in some of their earlier 
lielts. The method of weaving these belts was, though simple 
when oiice umlcrstood. a liighly ingenious process, rerpririu" 
much care and .skill. The process cannot he better described 
than in the words of Hr. L. H. IMorgan, one of the most careful 
and trustworthy of ohserver'. Supposing a belt of seven rows, 
which is the most common width, to he dc'-igueil, ‘'eight strands 



H. Half. — Fijv.r Huron IVompUin IlrcorJs. 


236 

or corJs of luirk tliread,” lie tells us, ‘-are fiist twi.steil from 
tilaiiieiits of slippery elia, of the reipui.site length and .size ; after 
Avhieh they are pa.s.sed through a strip of deerskin to separate 
them at espial distaiice.s from eaedi other iii parallel lines. A 
piece of splint is then .sprung in the form of a how, to tvliieh 
ea.ch end of the .several strings is seemed, like warp threads in a 
weaving machine.” The distance apait at which these parallel 
strings are held, it .should he undei stood, is the average length 
of a wampum liead. *■ Serx-n beads, these making the intended 
width of the belt, are then rnn upon a thread hy means of a 
needle, and are passed under the coith at right angles, so as to 
hring one bead lengthwise between each cord and the one next 
in positimi. I'he thread is then passed hack again along the 
upper side of the cords aud agahi through each of the head> : 
so that each head is iield firmly in its place by means of two 
threads, one passing under and one aliove the cords. This 
process is continued until the belt reaches it.s intended length, 
when the ends of the cords are tied, the ends of tlie belt covered 
and afterwards trimmed with ribbon.s. In ancient times both 
the cords and tlie thread were of sinew.” 

Most belts have devices interwoven, forming intelligible 
mnemonic pictures. These pictures are made by coloured 
beads, inserted as the belt pnx-eeds, sometimes dark on a wliite 
ground, and S'>metimes while on a dark gri>und. To produce 
the.se pictures, witii such intractable substances, requires in the 
weavers a degree of constant care and skill comparable only to 
that displayed in the making of gobelin tapestrv. 

IV. 

The Tom Histokical Hcrox Belts. 

'■Tlie poiil.lc-C'.ilumet Treaty Belt’’— “The Peace-P.ath Belt”— “The 

•Te.suit Tlis.'.ioiiary Belt' — “The Foiir-Aations Alliance Belt”— The 

S’evei'al .Syixit-cla and the Treatie.s .supposed to be Ef corded. 

1. The four Huron belts, Mhich form the main suliject of this 
memoir, may now be tlesciihed, iii the order [lartlv of their 
presumed age, and partly of their importance, (.'^ee Plate XI, 
vheie tliet are nuiuljered as in text, (.letaihs heiiio enlarged in 
1 late XII.) One of the oldest of them, and certaiidy the most 
important among them, is that which mav he stvled ‘Hhc 
Ijonlk Cub' not Tr'otij B'Ur This, which imrst have been, 
vvhen new, a truly imposing construction, is probably more 
than two and a halt centurie.s old. It is nine bend.s in width, 
and IS still over 3 feet and 9 inches long, though it has probably 
lost about a foot of it.s original length, "it displays on a 



II. Hale. — Foi'v Horon IVui/qniiii FllOi'J.-'-'. 2.37 

ilai-k ground of ilie costly purple wampum, tlie rather singular 
composite device of a coimcil-heartli in the centre — or what was 
prohahly the centre — of the original belt, Hanked on one side 
l>y four and on the other by three double-calumets (Plate 
XII. 1 ). or, ill other words, double-headed peace-pipes, each 
pus-essing a liowl at each end. This, it need not be said, is. as 
a pipe for actual use, an impo.ssible article. It is a creation oi 
what may be called the herahlic imagination, like the Austrian 
two-headed eagle, or the English unicorn. Of its significance 
there is no cpiestion. Concerning the history of the belt. Chief 
Mandorong could only tell me that it was a peace-belt, represent- 
ing an important treaty or alliance of ancient times. This is 
certainly as much as he could be reasonably expected to know 
of .so anticpte a record, which, from its lack of practical interest, 
had lung ceased to be produced and explained in the tribal 
council. Fortunately, the Jesuit ‘•'Relations’’ give ns ample 
information concerning what we may reasonahly presume to 
lia^'e been the time and the occasion of the treaty indicated by 
this belt. The letter of Father Lalemant to his superior at 
(Quebec, narrating the events of lfi39 and the following year 
(chapter X, page 9o of the (.liiebec edition of l.SoS), contains the 
following paragraphs : — *• The Khionontateronon (Tionontate 
people), wlio are called the Tobacco Xation, on account of the 
abundance of that herb which is grown in their country, are 
distant from the country of the Hnroiis, whose language they 
speak, some twelve or fifteen league.s to the westward. Tliey 
have formerly had cruel wars against each other, hut are now 
on very good terms, and have lately renewed their alliance, and 
made a new confederation, against .some other nations, their 
Louimoii enemies.'’ 

The only people from whom the Tionontate nation, in their 
isolated position, can liave received such an important pledge of 
alliance, were their numerous and powerful Huron neighbour^. 
The device may be deemed significant. The douhle calumets 
seem to have Ijeeu originally eight, one having been lost from 
one end, as another has jiartly disappeared from the other 
extremity. It was the habit of the modern Indians, when 
wampum beads were needed fur messages, presents, or saerifices, 
to have recourse to the ancient and, so to speak, obsolete belts, 
wliieli were llms gradually pillaged. It seems likely that the 
eight calumets bad reference to the eight clans or y. /(p s, who 
eomposeil the Huron people, and were found in diliereiit propor- 
tions in all the tribes. Tlie.se clans, called l:iy the Alyoiifpiians 
(vti ms, all boio the names of certain animals, with which the 
Indians held themselves to be mythologically connected — the 
bear, vtolf, deer, porcupine, snake, hawk, large tortoise, and 



2-'')8 II. H.vle. — Fuur Huixn Won.piini Fu^oidi. 

small tortoise. Each clan was more numerous in some towns 
than in others, as it was natural that near kindreds should 
cluster together. Thus the missionary Brebeuf speaks of the 
nation of the bears,” among whom he resided. Ihit all the 
yc/i/-s were closely connected by intermarriages, and a belt 
including them all, accompanied by a council lieaith, would be 
understood to express the unanimous will of the Huron people. 
It is true that the five Iiorpiois nations had also eight clans, 
thougli in part ditfereutly named from the Huron clan. But 
it is impossible to suppose that their inveterate enemies of the 
Tioiioiitate nation can liave combined in Irest owing upon the 
latter such a piledge of amity. The belt, in its first estate, must 
liuve Contained not less than three thousand beails, and must 
have been deemed not only an impres.sive record, but also a 
mao-nificent gift. It seems highly probalde that the special 
de^ice of the double calumet had a coiuijlimeutary reference to 
the title and reimte, on which the i'eci]jients doubtless prided 
them, selves, of The Tobacco Xation.” 

The expressions used by Lalemaiit in the jiassage ipioted, 
“ renewed their alliance,” and *■ made a new coutedei’iitiun,” 
are deserving of notice, as showing that the Hochelagan form 
of government, to which tliesc exjiressions evidently referred, 
was not, as Cartier supposed, a “ kingdom." but simply a con- 
federacy, doubtless of the usual Iroquoiaii stamp. 

2. Tlte l\a'i'-p,it]i Bilt.” — This name distinguishes a smaller 
belt, ot which oidy the memory remains that it was received at 
the ci'inclusion of a treaty of peace, made in ancient times 
fietweeii the Tioiiuiitate nation and a people possessing three 
couucil-fire.s. Thi.s people can hardly have been any other than 
the Huron confederacy. That League did indeed include five 
nations, hut two of them were comparatively insignificant, 
having each but one town, while the remaining twenty-two 
towns and villages of theWendat were divided among tlie three 
larger iratioris. It is knowrr from the Jesuit relatiuns that 
these three nations were accustomed to act itr cjuncil orr 
behalf lit the whole people. This was done in the famous 
nocturnal council of August, 1037, when a great assembly of 
the chiefs of the whole country was held to determine upon 
a war. and at the same time to decide the fate iif tlie mis- 
.sioiiaiie.,, who Mere accused of causing by their sorceries 
the pestilence whicli was then ravaging the Huron nations. 
Ibis council, we are told bv the mi.-^.sioiiarv Le IMercier, in his 
vivrd descrij.tiou of it (Belatioii of 1G3.S, chapter 2), “was 
composed of three rrations, namelv, that of the Bears our first 
hosts, who number fourteen towns and villages, and whose 
chrets held one side of the cabin, having us among them, wliile 



II. Hale. — Four Huron Winnpvin Fccor'li. 


239 


tlie oppo.site side was held Ly tlie two otlier nations, mimbei'ing 
each four well-peopled towns.” According to tlie custom of the 
couutiT, the missionaries piresented to the council a gift of 
three or four hundred, wampum beads, as an evidence of their 
concern for the general welfare. 'When their own case came 
up, they defended themselves against their accusers with a 
force of argument and appeal which secured them from im- 
mediate condemnaticin : and soon greater public dangers from the 
hostile Iro(|Uois had alarmed the Hurons, and induced them to 
seek the advice and assistance of the missionaries in their own 
mortal peril. It was at this time, apparently, that the desire of 
resuming their ancient amity and alliance with their neighbours 
of the Tobacco Xation had arisen, of which the first evidences 
were the two belts that have now been described. The smaller 
belt would be first presented as an overture cf lasting peace 
from the three leading Wend, it nations, while the larger belt 
would follow when the alliance was completed. 

3. “ Thr Jtsnit Jlirsioiiori/ Hit ." — The belt which bears this 
name i.s pnjbably, if judged from its size, its purport, and its 
history, the most remarkable and memorable wampuin-belt in 
existence. It can only be compared in all these respects with 
the famous “ Peiiii Wampum belt,” which in sonie points it 
decidedly surpasses. What my informant, Chief Mandorong, 
knew or believed of it was that it commemorated the accep- 
tance by the Hurons of the Christian religion, in the form in 
which it was presented to them by the Jesuit missionaries. 
The belt must have been made by Indians under missionary 
instructions, and in all probability in the Huron country ; but 
of the precise occasion and circum.stances of its presentation to 
his forefathers, and their acceptance, the chief knew nothing. 
The missionary reports seem to supply us with sufficient 
evidence on these points. In the letter of Father Lalemant, 
from which the paragraph relating to the treat}- with the 
Tionontate people has been iproted, we have a lively narrative 
of the trials and sutferings which befel the two missionaries, 
Fathers Gamier and Jogue-s, to whom the duty of commeiiciiig 
this mission to the Ti.ibacco Xation was assigned. The season 
was winter and the ground was covered with snow, on which 
they had sometimes to make their rude couches of piiie- 
bu'anches fi.>r the night’s sleep. The pestilence was raging, and 
the hostile rnmours against the mis.sionaries, as sorcerers who 
had brought it into the country, excited against them a frenzy 
of terror. Almu.st every door was closed against them ; and 
sometimes when they had been reluctantly admitted, they were 
ordered out in the middle of the night by their terror-stricken 
host. The women cried out against them in horror, and the 



240 


II. Hale. — Fowi' St'iXhi Jl Fccovds. 


tenifieJ cliikliea fled from them screaming. They were iiLle to 
baptize a few persons whom they found at the point of death, 
and finally returned safely from their venturous tour, half 
famished, hut triumphant and hopeful. 

This was in 1639. Ten years later, in 1649, we find the 
Tohacco Hation occupied hy two missions, each under the 
charge of two missionaries. It was prohahly during tliis 
decade, and at the commencement of what were deemed tlie 
permanent missions, that the belt in (|uestion was presented by 
the missionaiies. It was accepted by the people, not precisely 
as an evidence of the adoption of the nesv religion oft'ered to 
them, but as an indication of their willingness to listen to the 
missionary teachings. This we may infer from the similar 
experience cd the missionary Bivheuf, who in his report of 
1GS6, near the beginning of the Huron mission, relates that 
having to address an assembly of chiefs and elders of tlie 
“Nation of the Bears,’’ and invite them to attend to the 
precepts of his religion, he closed his address liy presenting to 
them a belt of twelve hundred wampinii-beads, telling them 
that it was to smooth for them the way to I’aradise. “ Such,” 
he add', “ are the expressions which they are wont to use in 
making presents to assist in achieving any difficult enterprise.” 

Ec-specting the device on this belt of Brebeuf, we are told 
nothing; litit its character may be conjectured from that of 
the belt which was afterwards given to the chiefs of the Tobacco 
Nation for a similar purpose, and which their successors have 
preserved for us. The figures are in white lieads on a dark 
ground. This costly substance, as well as the size of the licit, 
indicates the importance attached to the gift. Near the centre of 
the belt is the usual oval or lozenge-shaped figure (Plate XII, 2) 
representing a council. In this ca.se it must have been under- 
stood that the belt was a formal offering and overture from the 
whole ndscion council to the Tionoutate nation. By this time, at 
. least thirteen years after Brebeut’s present, the Huron Mission, 
with its numerous members and lay followers and its imposing 
buildings, had become an important biody. Tlie members held 
regular councils, which led to results of serious conseipiences. 
On each side of this symbolic council-hearth are leligious 
embhmis. Ncaic.st the hearth, on either baud, are two extra- 
ordinary figures, intended to represent the Dove ami the Lanrb ; 
and beyond them are three crosses in the Orevk foim, under- 
stooil to indicate the Trinity. Some other figures — whether of 
iiiGie oriiaL'iL'iit or of soiuo yigiiiticaiit puiport cannot novv' bo 
judged — seem anciently to have closed each end, but have now 
in part disappeared thiougli the hws of the beads composing 
them. The whole remaining device, grotesque as it seems to 



241 


H. Hale. — Four Jluroa Waminim Ectonls. 

our notions, formed a striking text of u.seful mnemonics for 
niissioiiary exhortations. The belt contains fifteen rows of 
beads, the figures white on a dark ground, and must have 
comprised originally not less than three thousand beads. 

4. “ The Fou r-Xatioui AUiauK Belt !’ — The notable difference 
between this and the three preceding belts marks a wide 
chasm of time and a great change of locality and condition. 
The latest date which can be ascribed to the Je.suit missionary 
belt is the year 1048, the eve of the expulsion of the Hurons 
by the Iroquois. The date fixed for the “ Four-Xations Belts,” 
by Peter Clarke, in the second decade of the eighteenth century. 
This belt is conseciueiitly younger than the Jesuit belt by over 
sixty years. During that period the Tiouontate people, now 
known as ^Yyalldots, had fled from the Blue Hills of their Lake 
Huron Switzeilaiid to the far west of Lake Superior, and had 
thence returned to the vicinity of Detroit, as already related. 
Here thev were welcomed not only by the French garrison and 
settlers of that post, but also by the three Algoiiquian tribes 
who held the lands in the vicinity, the Ojibwas, Ottawas, and 
Potawatoiiiies. An alliance was formed between these four 
nations, the terms which are carefully set forth by its Wvandot 
chronicler. It was mainly a treaty respecting lands, which will 
account fur the shape of the figures. In lieu of the oval council- 
hearth, we have four squares, Plate XII, (3, which indicate, in the 
Indian hieroglyphic system, either towns or tribes with their terri- 
tories, and remind us of tlie similar Chinese character, which repre- 
sents the w'ord “ field.” The White-peoples' liouses,” at the ends 
of the belt, Plate XII, 5, signified the French forts or settlements, 
which protected the native tribes alike against their persistent 
Iroquois enemies, and against the marauding Indians of the south 
and west, especially the Cherokees and the Sauks and Foxes. For 
purposes of erdtivation and of hunting, the lauds about Detroit 
were divided into four districts, one for each nation, two districts 
being east of the Detroit Biver in Canada, and two in Michigan, 
west of that river ; but each nation was to have the privilege 
of lumtiiig in the territory of all the others. It shows the 
strength of a treaty estal dished by the solemnity of a wampum 
belt that this compact remained in force among the four nations, 
in spite of wars and changes of government among their white 
protectors, and through all the turmoil and confusion of 
Pontiac’s conspiracy, in which all the Indians were more or le.ss 
engaged, for over a hundred year.s, from the first decade of the 
eigliteenth to the fourth decade of the present century. At the 
latter period, the Algoiiquian nations had each sold a portion of 
its separate territory to their wliite neighbour.s. They still, 
however, claimed their ancient privilege in the Wyandot lands, 

VOL. XXVI. II 



242 


H. Hale. — Fnnr Ihii' ui Jf L'lnimiii Fi:coi''^s. 


rir a mciiiey p.iyuieut in lieu of it Auain^t thi' uiu'ea'iiuAliI,- 
claim the Wyanilute piotesteil, ami their piotectine e"Aernmeiit, 
then represented hy .'sir Francis Head, promptly settled the 
matter in a whimsically arhitraiy fashion cliaracteiistic of thi^; 
military -minded ruler, by not only rejectina entirely the claim 
of the Alpoiiciuiaiis (except in a certain fashion those of them 
residing in L’anada), hut by deciding to scdl a portion of the 
'Wyandot lauds, ami to inve.st the proceeds paitly for the 
exclusive lieiietit of the "Wyandots. and partly for the behoof of 
the ( 'anadian Indians in general. Thus the “ Four Xations 
Belt ' ceased to have any etiiccicy as a political document. It 
became simply an hi.storical record, and one of no little impor- 
tance. as continuing our knowledge of the Huron Annals 
for the full term of three centuries, from Cartier in 1535 to 
Sir Fiancis Head in ISoG. This, with the suhseguent time 
to the }ireseiit date, is u longer peiiod of authentic history 
than (.an lie claimed hu any other ahoriginal people north of 
Mexico. 


M 

The Pe.nx 'Wampu.m Belt. 

Belt IlejiOsited with the Ilistoiical Society of Peiinsclvania in 1S.57 hy a 
great-irrand.-ou of tVillutm Penn — Sajijiosed to Peeord a Treaty made 
with the iJelaware Indians in 10^2 — Evidence of its Irofpioi.s ftrigin — 
Syndic, lie Inscription — Probable Date and (icca.sioii of its PresentatiiMi 
to Penn. 

(fur study may be furtlier illustrated and its msefulness shown 
hy some account of a vt-rv celehrated wampum record, to which 
reference has already heeii made. This is the '■ Penn Wampum 
Belt,' I'late XIIl, which is pre.served in the archives of the 
Hist'ii'ical Society of IVnnsyBauia. A /'nc-suni/i: uf this helt is 
given in the sixth volume of the memoirs of that Society (fur 1 .S.'i.S i, 
together with a record of the very interesting proceedings that 
toi.ik place at the presentation of the helt to the Society in 
April, 1.S57, by IMr. Granville Joint Benn, the great-grandson 
ami one of the heirs (A the illustrious founder of Beniisylvaiiia. 
Ill the address which was made on the occasion hy Jlr. Granville 
Benn are set forth with much peisuasive force his rea.son.s for 
helieving that this is the nlentical helt which was given to hi.s 
ancestor liy the Indian chiefs '• at the great treaty held in 10, S2, 
after his ariival in this cijuiitiy, coiitirmatory of the friendly 
relations which were then permanently estahli.shed hetweeii 
them. “ That such is the case,” continued Jlr. I’eiin, “■ tliere 
can exist no doubt, a.s (though it has come down to us without 
any ch.icumeutary evidence) it plainly tells its own story ; and 



H. Hale.— IL', 


Jl 'l.llliliJh'i 




ill acciirdcUiLt' \\itli llie re^iduiiuii paL-ed Ly the Sueiety at its 
last lueetiiiy, I beg to otfer the lollowing observations in 
evidence of the fact. In the first place, its diiiiemioiis are 
greater than of those used mi more ordinary occasions, of whicli 
we have one still in onr piO'Se.-^sion — this belt being composed 
of eighteen strings of wampum — which is a proof that it was 
the recoid of some very impoitant negotiation. In the next 
place, in the centre of the belt, which is of white wampum, are 
delineated in dark-coloured lieads, in a rude but graphic style, 
two figures, that of an Indian grasping with the hand of friend- 
ship the hand of a man evidently intended to he repneseiited 
in the European costume, wearing a hat ; which can mily he 
interpreted as having reference to the treaty of pieace and 
friendship which was then concluded between 'William Peiin 
and the Indians, and recorded by them in their sinipile but 
descriptive mode of exporessing their meaning l.iy the employ- 
ment of hieroglyphic'. Tlicu the fact of its having been 
preserved in the family of the founder from that pieriod to the 
pireseut time, having descended through tluee generations, gives 
an authenticity to the document whicli leaves no doubt of its 
genuineness : and as the chain and medal which were presented 
liy the Parliament to his fatlier, the Admiral, for Ids naval 
services, have descended among the family aiehives nnac- 
conipianied by any wiitten dociimeut, hut aie recorded in the 
journals of the Ib.itise of (.'ommons, erptial authenticity may be 
claimed for the wanijntm belt confirmatory of the treaty made 
by his .sou with the Indians; which event is recorded on the 
page of history, though, like the older relie, it has heeii unac- 
eompanied in its descent by any document in writing,'’ 

Pmt it may be observed that the " older relic," the Admiial's 
medal, doubtless had an in-fcripaion, winch alone would liacv 
siitficed to identify it. The wampum belt had also its inscrip- 
tion, which, if its piirpiort had been known in l.S,i7, either to 
the generous pareseiiter or to the grateful lecipdeiit', would have 
satisfied them that the belt could not have been that whieh 
they, with such appiareutlv goo(l ivas. ms, natiirallv supipcised it 
to be. This iiiseriptioii did not, in fact, escapie notice at the 
time. The Society’s official rep)orter, in describing the belt, 
remarks that '‘there are tluee hands, also worked in violet 
beads, one at either end. the other about one-third the distance 
from one end, wliich may liave reference to the parties to the 
treaty, or to the llivers Helawaro, Sdiuyllkdl, and Susiiuehauua.'’ 
The conjecture that these bauds "had reference to the piarties to 
the tieity” was a sagaciotis one, and was imdouhtedlv correct. 
At the first sight of the belt, when it was .shown to me at a later 
day by the obliging officials of the Society, I was able to assure 

K 2 



H. Hale. — Four Huruji TJ'ainpVri I!o:oriU. 


lH4 


tlieiu that the belt could not po^.sihly have hceii preseiiLeJ to 
Williaiii Penn, at the treaty of IiJSl', iiuieinueh as that treaty 
vras luarle with, the Ttelaware (or Leuupe) Indians, while the 
helt is lUKpue^tionahly of Iioipiois origin, atnl must have been 
presented by some repre-sentative of the Five Xatiniis. The 
oblipiie bands ate the wcdl-kiiowu symbul of the federation. 
Tlie uri'iiii and meaiiin,^ of the symbol are well understood 
.aiiorig the Indian tribes. The confederacy was known as the 
“ Long-House, ’ a metaphor which in their sj^eech was carried 
out in luinnte particular's. The ordinary Iro([noi5 eciiiiniunal 
dwelling', called a long-house,'’ was constructed by planting on 
each .side of the site of the inteuile'.l edihce a row of strong 
“ frame-poles,’’ which, after rising to a certain height, were bent 
inward to meet and form hetweeir the rows a long covered hall, 
like a garden arbour, to which it ha.s been freipiently compared. 
This hall was divided by transverse coiupartment.s into separate . 
dwellings foi the different households. These frame-poles were 
hound together hy smaller interlacing poles and withes, and the 
whole framewoik, on sides and roof, was carefully covered with 
closely fitted stiips of hark (answering to cur siding-boards and 
shingles) leaving only an opening along the Centre of the roof 
for the einoke to escape from the iire-hearth.s below, of whicli 
there was one for every two houseliohls. Tlte large bent frame- 
poles were known to the natic'e.s by the name of laHasf'.i, a. word 
whicli they render in Engli.eli by '• rafter.’’ This is the object 
which is Tt'presc-nted on wampum belt.-> hy the inclined hand, 
and which is deemed, by a natural synecdoclie, the symbol of 
tlieii confederacy. Tlum the Irocpiois league is .spoken of in their 
Po'ik of Hites as la/u/sta-t^il-otcn, ‘' the great framework.’’ It 
uas this mighty .structure, which, when the belt in ipiestioii was 
given, overshadowed tlic greater part of Xorth America, that was 
indicated hy the oblique bauds. That there might be no C|Uestiou 
mi ihi^ subject,! slmwed the /uc-.-tiunlc iii the book tomyiutelli- 
gent friend, Chief John Buck ( Skauainitl), the leading chief, 
and one of the liest iiifoimed men of the .^i.x Xatioiis, and a.sked 
his iipiiiion of it. He atfirined, without hesitation, that it was 
an Iioquois treaty helt. though <ui what precise occasion it was 
given there was nothing to .show. 

The occasion when it is probable that this belt was given 
seems, however, to be sufficiently shown in the “ Colonial 
Archives of I’ennsylvaiiia,” vol. i, p. 144, which record a treaty 
made between William Beiin and the cliiefs of several nations of 
Indians, who united in coufirruiiig all former cessions of lands, 
and in establishing a '■ firm and lasting peace,” so that, as the 
written treaty declares, in words evidently .suggested by Penn 
himself, they “ shall forever hereafter he as one head and one 



245 


H. Hale, — Funr Haruii Wampirm Feccrds. 

heart, and live in true friendship and amity as one people.” 
Among the names of tlie contracting chiefs -who represented 
their several nations, special prominence is given to “ Ahoahas- 
sough, brother to the Emperor or Great King of Onondagoes of 
the Five Nations, ^vho had arrived in tovn (Philadelphia) two 
days ago, with se\'eral others of their great men, and Indian Harry 
for their interpreter.” A delegation of this character would not 
have attended a treaty conference without bringing unquestion- 
able credentials, such as a belt like this would have fui’nished. 
ilr. Frederick B. Stone, of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, in 
his elaborate paper on '‘Penn’s Treaty with the Indians,” published 
by the Society, says of the treaty of 1701 ; — ‘‘ Tliis treaty seems 
to have been a very formal affair, and certainly it was a most 
important one. We do not doubt that tradition has in some 
manner confounded what was done at it with the earlier treaty 
which Penn’s letters of August IG, IGSG, teU us had been held.” 

At this date, as I.aw.sou has informed us, the machine-made 
wampum had not been accepted by the natives, and we are not 
surprised to find in the carefully lithographed /ac-siJHih; abun- 
dant evidence of the pains and labour ” expended by the 
natives in the manufacture of the hand-made heads, and in 
wearing them with bark filaments in a belt of the extraordinary 
width of eighteen rows, making it undoubtedly one of tbe most 
important and characteristic of aboriginal treaty records. 

VI. 

GeXEK.VL COXCLI'SIOXS. 

Evidences of .i Ee.-il Civili^.'ition in Aboiiginal America — Intellectual and 
Moral Qualitie.s Indicated — Proliable Error of some Ethnologists and 
Possible JJisastrons Itesults. 

It will ho noticed that each of the five wampum lielts here 
describcil has its distinct device or inscription, and that these 
devices have for the most part passed beyond the stage ot 
picture-writing and become conventional characters, analogous 
to those of the Chinese script and to a large portion of the 
Egyptian hieroglyphics. The only instances of mere picture- 
writing in the five belts are the two men with joined hands on 
the Penn belt and the “white people's houses” on the Huron 
•‘.Four Nations” belt. If the three conventional devices on the 
Jesuits’ belt are of missionary suggestion, the five different 
symliols on tlie other four belts — the oval figure indicating 
a tribal council, the square representing a nation, the doubk"- 
calumet fur a treaty of alliance, the white line for an assurance 
of peace, and the inclineil hands signifying the Iroquois con- 



240 


H. Half. — Fui' r Uui-uil IVaiiqm ir 


federation — are all of pnrely nathe oiij^in, ami are omployed iu 
a niaiiuer ^^llic•ll ehows a clear aj'ipreciation ot the t'alue of 
written language, liiehlv creditable to the inventor^. It may 
he noticeil that we have nothing piositive in the Homeric proeme 
or ill the results of modern excavations to .show a similar advance 
in the Greeks of the Homeric Age. — and this ile.spiite their near 
proximity to the Egyptian and Assyrian literary civilisations. 
It sliould fnither he coii'idered that the formal exchange among 
the Imlian nations of doeumeiits so constructed and inscribed as 
to hf permanent records of treaty compacts, is a custom which 
could ordvhave arisen in coninmnities among whom the keeping 
of goc'd faith wa? a general habit and in puldic matters a con- 
tinued traditirui. 

The extent and fregnency of the use of this method of 
conveying messages and recr.rding compacts are deserving of 
notice The iroeptois arahassador Kiotsatou, who in 1G45 

came te> Quehec to conclude a tieaty of peace with the Governor, 
ibaitmagny, as recorded in the .Tesuit llelation of that year, 
deliverod seventeen wampum belts, each having its own distinct 
sieiiitleaiice and consecpieiitly its uwn s])ecial device. Later in 
tlie -ame year another emliassy followed to confirm the treaty 
and extend its terms so far a> to include all the Indian allies 
of tlie French. On this occasion twentv-two belts were pre- 
sented. each hearing its separate message. The Goloiiial 
LecoisH i.'f I’eimsylvania ilestrihe many tieaties lictweeii the 
Irognciis and various s<,nth(-i'n natii'ms, accompanied liv the 
delivery of hidts. In vol. ii of these Itecords, p. 240. there is 
an account of “ a very large wampaim licit of twcnty-oiie rows, 
with three hands [evidently the synihollii-al Zov/n/s/u] wrought 
111 it ill hlack the rest white), whicdi helt was a pledge formerly 
delivered hy the Gnondaga Indians, one of the Five Xations, to 
the Xanticokes, when they made the said Xanticokes trihu- 
taiies." On a later page (287; we read of the same Xanticoke.s. 
vcho liad tb.en (in 1707) heeit twenty-seven years at peace 
with tlie Fi^ e Xations.” They had nineteen helts of wampium 
then ]!ie|iared to send to the Five Xation.s as a trihute. At 
liage 471 tlie (hinawese Indians, in an interview with the 
(.'oleiiial Council. ■■ lay on the talde of the ( 'oiincil a helt of 
wampum to enforce their wnids.’’ and at the same time state 
that they had twenty-four helts provided as a tribute to the 
Five Xations. In vol. ix of the Kecords, page 774, there is 
an account of the then “Six Xation.s” with the Gatawhas and 
other southern nations, at which the latter gave twenty belts 
and many .strings of wamjuim. (Mr. Holine.s gives particulais 
of many similar Councils, and jiictures of several notable belts, 
each having its own special inscription. The American Colonial 



n. IIale.— P o/'.- ,'"tL 


If iniqitti/i Tl' Liji'il.-. 


247 


Archives and Missionary Eeyorts of the seventeenth and 
eighteenth centuries abound rvitli similar notices. If only a 
tithe of all the belts then presented, with the sieiiificance of 
their ninemonie devices, had been preserved, it would constitute 
a literature of aboriginal diplomatic leeords of whicli the 
great histuiical and ethnological value would not be clisjutted. 

The facts adduced in the foreg'oing paces seem to lead to some 
further inferences which are deserving of careful and candid 
cousideratiun. It is apparent that when the Spanish, English, 
and French colonists arrived in America, with the intention of 
taking possession of the land — which necessarily meant the 
extermination of the native inhabitants — they found these in- 
habitants enjoying frames of government and forms of civilisa- 
tion wliicli evinced intellectual and moial faculties of no mean 
order. These statements are not only true of the populous 
communities of Pern, ^Mexico, and other central and South 
American countries, but in some respects will apply with even 
greater force to the tribes of Xorth America, who then occupied 
what are now the Vnitcd States and Canada. Here we find a 
real money, which, if it had not all the characters of a true 
cunency, approached it very nearly, and i''ffered many of its 
advantages. We find the elements of a written language, 
widely diffused, and employed especially in preserving, with 
happv effect, the memory iff' treaties of peace and alliance. And 
we find established systems of government, so devised as to pre- 
serve for centuries the personal liberties and tribal independence 
of the Communities maintaining them. M'e find also, according 
to the testimoiiv of all the early explorers, a degree of generally 
diffused Comfort throughout tlie gi eater portion ot the native 
population, not inferior to any that has existed in other pans of 
tlie globe. 

If scholars who have made what they deem a careful and 
impartial study of the languages, customs, and traditions of the 
American lace and of other so-called inferior races, have found 
in them, as they lielieve, evidences of natural endowments not 
inferior to those of any other races, but merely kept down and 
made torpid by centuiies and perhaps milleiiidums of unfavour- 
able environment, tliey may be entitled to suggest, by way of 
friendly warning, that other students vvlio take a contrary view, 
and devote themselves to the agreeable and popular taste of 
exalting the race to which they themselves liappen to liolong as 
naturally superior to all others, may be as sadly mistaken as the 
Chinese sages have been in the like circumstances, and may be 
heliiing to prepare for the future millions of the self-sufficient 
and intolerant Aryan race the same deplorable destiny that is now 
overtaking the self-sufficient and intolerant millions of China. 



248 


E. B. TylOE. — The Hide Scr 'u-i oj 


The Hale Sekies or Hl'eox 'Wampum Belts. 


Xofci Odd Addiddo. By Prof. E. B. Tyloe. D.C.L., F.B.S, 

While Y'ritiny lliese remarks, I received M'itli reoret but hardly 
surpri.se the intelligence of Mr. Hale's death. The tone of his 
letters fur mo)ghs past had been that of a man looking toward 
the end of his tvork in life, and anxious to .■settle finally .ill 
matteis he had nincli at heart. Among these were his inve.sti- 
gati.ins into the history of his friends the Iroi[iiois and Huroiis, 
to carry oat whieli he had given .so mtich labour, and of which 
his last studies, undertaken to elucidate their native records, 
firm, a lit completion. 

The '■ Hale Series of Huron 'Wampum Belts,” which lately 
passed into my hands, have been presented by me to the Oxford 
University Museum, where they are now placed in the Pitt-Ilivers 
Collection. In bringing before the Anthropological Institute 
the long and careful paper written by Mr. Hale to accompany 
this group of American Indian records, illustrations were 
needed, the piincipal of tvhich are here reproduced in Plates XI, 
Xnh and rigs. 1 and 2. I also found it desirable for clearing 
up points ill the paper, and in .support or criticism of the 
writer's vietvs, to add a numher of remarks. These, with 
others arising from questions raised in further correspondence 
M'ith IMr. Hale, are ir iw appended, reference being made to the 
passages of the paper with which they are connected. 

Woinpvm Bindi nad Bdfi (page 2.33). — The different modes 
of fashioning M'ampuiii, serving as they do to determine its 
date and origin, reipire furtlier consideration here. After 



Fig. 1. — a. e. ground bead, native make, probabl.T stone drilled, Canada; (Dr. 
Daffsonj. I, c,f, rudely ground beads, probably awl-cirilled ; from Mis-' 
sionary Belt, Plate XI , 3. d, g, machine-turned and drilied bead ; European 
make. ' ^ 



249 


Hvroii add Wuniinnii Bdts. 

i>'oing somewhat carefully into the matter with l\rr. H. Balfour, 
I have drawn up the following particulars in which we agree. 
As to the outside shaping of the beads there are two kinds. The 
more ancient beads were made by rubbing down a fragment of 
shell on a stone till the facets united in a fairly regular outline, 
Fig. 1, a, h, c ] the modern beads, d, received their cylindrical shape 
by turning in a lathe. This classification by the outside dis- 
tinguishes native-made beads from those made in the colonial 
workshops, but it dots not show whether those of native make 
ilate liefore or after the coming of the white men. This, how- 
ever, may be to seme extent learnt from tlie mode of boring. 
Before European times, the Indians no doubt bored their shell- 
beads by means of a chipped point of flint or other hard stone, 
fixed to a stick which they twirled between the palms of the 
hands. It is obvious that their mode of drilling hard stone by 
means of a stick or reed with sharp sand, though suitable for 
boring holes half an inclt or more in diameter, was quite 
impracticable for perforating wampum. (Inly Vjoring with the 
Hint point would serve, and that only for short beads. It is 
seen by specimens of beads of the Stone Age found in the older 
Indian graves, and even by such ancient beads ns are still worn 
in Indian necklaces, that cylinders and even thin discs of shell 
were perforated from both ends, the two conical borings meeting 
in the middle. This is indicated by the diagram c in the figure, 
showing the perforation of the shell-head o, one of some genuine 
stone age beads from Indian graves, of which selections have 
been kindly sent to me from Canada by Dr. G. "W. Dawson and 
by Mr. David Boyle. When the goods of the wliite traders came 
within reach of the Indians, F.uropean tools must have begun to 
supersede tlie flint point. A tempered steel tool was needed to 
bore the shell of the quahaug or liardshell clam, Venus mc-rci naria, 
from which all the purple wampum beads and a great part of the 
white were made, other white beads being from the columella of 
univalves such as the whelk-like Fulf/ur carica. The hardness of 
this material is seen from the fact that though a steel blade will 
scrape the clam-shell, an ordinary soft iron nail writes on it like 
a pencil. Indeed the hard.shell clam seems to have Iiecome 
typical of stubbornness, perhaps having even suggested the popu- 
lar names of tlie Hardshell Democrat and the Hardshell Baptist. 
There is a remark by lloger Williams who, writing in his Vocab- 
ulary of incidentally records both the original use of the 

stone drill for boring the .shell beads, and its supersession by the 
European awl. He writes, “ before ever they had awle blades from 
Europe, they made shift to bore their shell money with stones."'^ 
The awl may have been fastened to a stick and twirled between 

‘ Roger ’Williams, ‘‘A Key into the Language of America,” p. 14*. 



250 


E. B. Tvlok. — JA i Huh. ^V/’iVs of 


the hands, or it may have hetii worked with the 
such ill Europe chiiia-meiiders still use foi their very similar 
piir}H ise. The use of this iiistruineiit, easily made from pieces of 
Wijud and string', seems to have heeii leaiut from the Europeans 
by the natives fai and wide in America ; for instance, it may still 
I'C seen among the Zuhis of Xew Mexico. The diagram/', repre- 
seutiiig the Ijoring of the eiouiid beads h and fairly represents 
the result svhich the Imlian reached in the 17th century 
]iy the use of European tools. Tlie slightly conical borings 
due to an ill-centred metal drill, and 'till made from both ends 
to meet in the middle, distinguish the lieads of this perioil from 
both the first and last kinds. Finally, we come to the ordinary 
product of the Dutch and English wampum factories. These 
are the machine turned ami ilvilled shell-beads shown by J and 
ij in the figure, in their dimeii.sious like J-iueli lengths of a 
Common clay tohacco-pi[>e. 

Applying this ciiterion to the wampum helt.s which form the 
sulgect of 3Ir, Hale's ptq.ei, Mr. Balfour and I fail to find in 
them any stoiie-bored heads, which is equivalent to .saying that 
they heLiiig to the European period <uid e.uinut be much earlier 
titan IbOO. The IIiuou belt.■^, Plate XL 1. 2, .'1, consist of ground 
ami apparently awl-boivd beads, even the most symmetrical not 
seeming t(.) he turned. They may tlm.s be assigned to a time 
when till- Tndi.ms had alieady begun to obtain European steel 
tool' which they could convert into suitulde drills, hut when 
factoiv-imide wampum had not come iu. Xuw about Ihll 
Father Bi.tid desciibes the Indian tiilie-s us coming iu summer 
by the liiver St. L.iwreiice to barter their furs agaiu't Ereiich 
w■llle.■^, among which <ire 'pecially lueiicioued awds ami hodkiiisd 
Tlius there IS no chronological uhjectiou to these belts being 
leiei'iedt to eieiits about 1G4U, a date at wliich the Indians were 
Well supplied with such tools. The belt -4 is as certainly of 
factory-maile head^, ju’oliahly of the 18th century. 

A^ to the ci'ilier belts oidy known to me Ijy pictures such as 
tlio.-^e figured by Prof. "VV. H. Holmes in his valual.de account,- and 
eventlie I’eiin Belt (Plate XIII, 8) of which so large and careful 
a rcpresentatiou has been publir^hed by the Hi.^torictd Society 
ijf Peiiimylvaiiia," I do nor think it desirable to express any 
opiniijii from this point of view. Eveu large photographs are 
iusulhcieiit to give the requisite details. But iio doubt the 
aiilhi'opohjgical interest attaching to the (|uestions raised by 

' (fe^ -Tusultes Jans la Xouvalle Franco. ” Quebec, 1S5S, vol. i, 

P "J- also Jacques Cartier’s ‘’First Vovaje/’ 

. n. Ui.'lmos, “Art in Shell of the Ancient Americans,” in “Second 
Kciiort of the Bureau of Ethnology,” WaAiinirton, 1SS3, p. 1S5. 

* ‘ Contnlfution:^ to American llLstory,” Pluladelphia, Itiob. 



Hu rOii nriJ U uiujyihn 


251 


2ilr. Hale \Yill leual to all i^ueh iiuportaut wauipiun belts being 
examined with a view to settling' their dates approximately 
from their make. Especially if tliere exists anywhere a 
wamiauii belt made of stone-bored Ijeads, or even of stone- 
boreil and awl-bored beads mixed, it will be heard of. There 
is at present no known wampum belt which appears t(; have 
lieeii made Ijefore the European period in America. 

Tlu- h'nquoii Olliqut Btuul (p. 244). — The .statement that the 
ubiliijue band on a wampum belt is the S 3 'mbol of the IroC|Uois 
Coiifederacv, was brought forward so far as I knijw for the 
first time biy Mr. Hale in liis paper lead at the British Associa- 
tion at Montreal in 18^4. In his present paper it is reinforced 
bv the sulistantial authority of two chiefs well versed in 
Iroyuois tradition — (4. H. M. Johnson fOnwanonsyshon), the 
Cb-wernment interpreter, and John Buck (Skauawati), the 
otiicial keeper of the wampum, whose father, grandfather, and 
great grandfather had hehl the same otHce. As. however, the 
point .seemed one im which all availalde evidence should be 
collected, I made a further communication to IMr, Hale, who 
then sent a phntograpli which he laid had taken of the belts 
belonging to the 8ix Xathms. here reproduced in Plate XIII (n). 
Some of the I'clts are those held in the hands of the 
chiefs photographed fm- iMr. Hale in the act of telling the 
waiiipiuu, I’late Xn”, J. The fact that about h<df these most 
nenuine Iroiptois lielts have the obliipie liand, confirms the 
•statement that it belongs to the Troipiois Teague. 

The obili(pie baud thus being considered a conventional repre- 
sentation of the /.vo'o.s/a or rafter of the hinnifu-t.^lLoiru, or 
great rafter framewoik. a name applied to the Iroquois League 
as svinliolized b_v the native loiig-laaise extended by successive 
additions at the eiiil, it becomes desirable to notice how far the 
band is like the actual rafter of .such a structure. For thi.s 
jiurpose two sketches of the Iroiyiois bark-house are given, Fig. 
2, o, h. Here h .shows the modern Europeanized form from 



.1 h 


Fig. 2. — IpoqiiuL' ba^’k-house . a Old form. Europoanized. 



252 E. B. Tyloi;. — Th: IJaJ. S- ru:, of 

Morgan.^ The older and characteristic Iruijiiois house of the two 
preceding centuries is represented in a, from one of tlie 
illustrations in Latitan, which shows ;m Iroguois bark-cahiii 
witli the screen f(jriniug the end removed. The roof is formed 
by bending over flexible poles made fast to the tops of the 
upiiglit stakes at either side, and covering them in with sheets 
of bark. Traces of this older structure are to Ire still seen in tire 
flexible pole, holding down the bark sheets iii h. Lahtau 
considered the form of the cabin a to belong e-'-pecially to the 
Iroijiiois-Huron family and their neighlrours who copied it from 
them. If so, the adojaion must have begun long before hi.s 
time, for these are the houses in which, as early as 1585, the 
Algoinpiian tiilres of Virginia are representeil as lir'ing. iMr. 
Hale’s description of the stakes set in the ground and heat over 
to meet in the middle so as to be wall-posts and rafters in 
one, though this structure is not nuknown, can hardly have 
been tlie typical form of the Iroquois long-house at least in 
times after the League. It is thus not cpiite clear wliat part of 
the structure tlie Ir<»puois depicted by the oblique baud. 

The Tl/ih Ti'cufy (page 242). — Though the well-known 
picture by Benjamin West was painted many years after 
Penn's airi\-al in the colony, it seems to have been studied 
with care, and may fairly he taken to represent what the scene 
was like in colonial memory. It corresponds with Penn’s 
own account, in which there is mention of gifts and fiiendly 
speeches, luit none of the wampum ceremony. A small copy of 
the picture is here given (Plate XIV, 1), in order to contrast 
it w ith Latitau’s picture of a treaty council where a wampum 
belt is delivered Plate XIV, 2;. This, conventional as the 
figures are, no doubt fairly represents how one of these highly 
ceremonial acts was really pcrformcil. 

VrujLji oj the W((iiiyiiin Bilt. — In the last letter I received 
from 2\Ir. Hale, Xovemher 12th, IShri, he mentioned that 
w'herea.s he liad hith.erto declined to accept the p(-isitive assur- 
ance of the Iroquois councillors that Hiawatha (Havunwatha, 
“ V ampum belt maker”) was the inventor of the wampum 
belt, this was because he understood them to mean that he tirst 
made wampum, which seemed to him an incredilile statement. 
But since he wrote the foregoing memoir he had come to under- 
stand that they ascribed to him simply the invention of the 
woven I'elt, as a credential for lii.s ambassadors of peace. 
Acctq.ting the Iroquois tradition in this form, ho wrote a 
paper whicli was read at tlie American Association in August, 

' L. ir. “Leag.je Iroquois," p 3. See also in 

‘Contributions to J. Ethnoloav," rol. iv, p. 01, LaCti’i, “Maurs ties 
Sauvagesi Aniericams, ' voi. li, p. l.>, t5h*-314. 



llth'uil ttivl Jf L'.ulpKnt. JjcltS. 


1S9G. Tliis paper will Le found in the “ Popular Science 
Monthly,'’ Feijruary, 1897, under the title Indian 'Wampuin 
llecords.” The acceptance of Hayumvatha as the inventor of 
the wanipuin Lelt involves the argument that the name, elerived 
from Ayunwa = “ wampum helt,” and Katha = “ to make,’’ was 
a honorific name given to him in commemoration of his heroic 
deeds. Otherwise the eviileiice is substantially imchauged. 

Such a tradition involves no impossihility, hut it may he 
o'lijected tliat considering how many obvious fables have 
centred in Irorpiois legend rouinl the name of their national 
hero, it is too mucli to accept as real histoiy the details of his 
foundation of the Irocpioi.s League. The added belief that he 
invented the art of using the native shell wiu'k as a means of 
])ictorial record, now comes apparently for the liist time to 
European ears. Granting that it is now Tniiian tradition, a 
period estimated at over four centuries is a long time for such 
tradition to run clear unle.^.s supported liy material records. 
Even if there were undoubted svampum belts dating from the 
beginning of the League, the traditions talked into them might 
have given more solid ground of history. The OiKjndaga 
wampum belt figured in Plate XIII, 2, showing four tribe.s 
united by one heart, has been claimed as reeoi'iliug the forma- 
tion of tlie Leagrite. But iMic Beauchamp, a good judge, con- 
sidereil the beads too regular to be haml-made. If so, it is 
.some 250 years later than the date assigned to tlie League, yet 
Mr. Beauchamp declares that it i> consiilered the most ancient, 
and to record the foundation of the League, so that it may he 
called a kind of constitution, and is venerated aceordiiigly.^ If 
now it he determined finally hy close iu.spection whether this 
belt is of beads stone-drilled or ,stecl-diilled. hand-ground or 
machine-ground, we shall have a good opportunity of estimat- 
ing the historical value of Indian tradition. i\Ir. Hale himself 
slnaws (p. 234) how fallible it may he. Lentil this and other 
examinations are made, it would, I think, be premature to discuss 
what individual Indian was the inventor of wampum belts. 

Apart from this historical rpie^tion, however, I would suggest 
in couchisiou that there is an anthropological problem in which 
evidence is available, and seemingly tending tcuvard a conclu- 
.sion up to a certain point in the same direction with ^Ir. Hale’s 
argtimeut. Any student ■who examines the iufijrmatiou which 
has lieeii printed as to -wampum belts will, I think, be curi- 
ously struck with the fact that almost all of it is Iroipuois. 
Mliat little relates to otlier peoples, especially in early times, is 
found among neighbours of the Iro.puois under their influence 

^ W. H. Holmes, I.c., p. 252; W. M. Beauchamp in ^’American Anti- 
quarian/’ vol. ii, p. 228 ; H. Hale in Poj)ular Science Montlilv,” Jan. 1886. 



2.34 0. Montelil'S . — Tilt Ti/i-rlteiiiims 

and likely to Ijorrow their customs. A map of the reyioii of the 
wampum belt will he found to centre in the Iropuois country, 
leading to the inference that it was there that it had its origin. 


December 14tli. 1S96. 

E "W. Br.\erook. Esq., F..'^.A.. rmah.fd. in the Ch.ni,-. 

The Minutes of the last Meethm weie read and signed. 

The following papers were read : — 

The Tyiihenians in Greece and Italy." By Dr, Oscar 
Moxtelius\ 

'■ Pre-elassieal Chronology in Greece and Italy.” By Dr. 
Oscar Mortelius. 

Messi.s. A. Ev.j,xs, J. L. Myees, Lewi.s. Phexe, and Bidcavay. 
and Ml'S. Sroi'ES took part in the discussion. 


Tlx Tyrehexiaxs in (treece nnd Italy.^ 

By Prof. Oscar Moxtelics. 

[CTTIH PL.CTES XV 10 XXX.] 

I ROM theohl centre in the valley of the Euphrate.s, a very high 
civilisation in a comparatively early period reached the western 
coasts of Asia and the south-eastern parts of Europe. 

< )n tlie rvay from tlie Euphrates to the Mediterranean we 
find the Empire of the Hittites, occupying .'syria and a great 
]iart of Asia ilinor. By this people the (Oriental cirilisation 
had been brcaigdit much nearer to Eiiro]ie than in the times 
Mhen this culture wa.s cimtineil to the (.'liahUeo-Assyrian terri- 
tories ; and it is natural to sup)poPe that, when this civilisation 
reached the coasts of Asia Minor, it mu.st have had a tendency 
to go farther we.st, t<) spiread over the i.sles in the .Egean Sea 
and the coasts of ( ireoce. AVe find al.so on the.se isles and these 
coasts, in a very remote period, the remarkably high civilisation, 

' The same ideas have been expressed by the author in tlie meeting of the 
fewediali Society for Anthropology and G-eography, October 2Utli 1893. 































XORTUHliX ITA1.^. 


Etruscan 



lo |}laLkfit*iiru{l 



1 1 . niacUti^uj ctl 










II I’aiiilfd polU'i'y 



I I'allltc-tl pl.ltLlN 


JotirnaT of the Aiifhropolo^iccil Inifitufe, T'o!. XAT I, Plate AAl I 




























la Gr‘Ao: Odd Itohj. 2.35 

■which ^Yas first discovered by Dr. Schlieinann, and -with which 
we have been familiar fcr the last twenty years, under the name 
of the Mycentcan. 

The remains of this IMycenteaii civilisation consist of the ruins 
of cities and tombs with their contents. In the city we find 
the citadel with the palace fur the king. |M'otected by walls 
of enormous stones, as at Tiryns, and accessible through strong 
gates like the Lion Gate in iilyceniC. Tlie weapons and imple- 
ments found in them cities and tombs are not of iron, but of 
bronze, or sometimes of stone. Thus, so that we have still to 
do with the pure hviizi but yet with a far more advanced 
bronze age than in the other parts of Europe : with architecture, 
sculpture, and painting ; with cciluinns and vaults ; with 
sculptured and engraved stones ; witii painted walls and painted 
pottery; with gold, silver, amher. alabaster, and lapi.s lazuli, 
with engraved gems, and the beginnings of an art of writing, as 
Mr. Arthur Evans has lately discovered. 

These remains are principally to be seen in the isles and the 
coasts of Greece, and there is no ditficulty in proving that this 
civilisation is not an indigenous one ; it is not the direct con- 
tinuation of the immediately preceding stage. It is evidently 
something foreign coming from another country. 

The shape of the graves and their contents are new. 
Before that time the bodies were deposited in a little cavity, 
hollowed out in the ground, and lined with stones. In the 
ilycerifean period, the tomlw are either largo “ fosse ’’ — like the 
tomhs discovoreil by Schliemann in the Acropolis of Myeeiu'e — 
or chambers accessible through a door on the side ; the bodies 
were, as before, deposited unburnt. IMost of the weapons, 
implements, personal ornaments and pottery placed in these 
graves are cpiite different from those belonging to the preced- 
ing peiiod, but a great number of tliem resemble those found 
in the East. 

Thus it is evident tliat the iMyceiucan civilisatieui in Clreece 
is due not only to an influence from another countiy, l)ut to 
the imniigratioii of a new people. That this people — or at least 
the great majority of the immigrants — came from .V-in INIinor is 
proved hy the important fact, which however has not been 
sufficiently noticed, that the Tlyceiueau tomhs are of the same 
kind as tho'o comiuou in A.-ria IMini.u’, but are different from the 
characteri.-,tic Blicciiician grave, which is a vertical ^haft with a 
chamber opening on its -^ide at the liottoui. 

The lions on the famous gate of Myceme and numerous other 
objeets point also in tiio direction of Asia Minor, bc( ausc similar 
remains have been discovered there, but do net c.visl in riiu.-nicia 
or Egyjit. 



25G 


0. Moxtelil'S. — Tne Ti/n-hcniaiii 


The close relation between the inliabitants of Greece and the 
western parts of Asia Minor in those times is also proverl by 
the nanierous localities in both countries bearing already in 
the pre-clussical time tire same names. Among the most 
remarkable names of that kind are those of Olympos, Ida and 
Larissa. 

On the other hand, there are in the IMyeenoean remains many 
traces of a frei|nent intercourse with the Phoenicians and with 

Tire Jlyceuican epoch in Greek history eras a very long one. 
"VVe can now — especially with tlie help of the pottery — distinguish 
four different periods, and we know that the later part of the 3rd 
period correspKinds with the l-oth century. This is proved, in the 
most indisputable way, by repeated discoveries iit Greece and in 
Egypt itself of Mycemean pottery of tlie later part of the 3rd 
period together with inscriptions hearing the name of the 
Egypjtian king Amenophis or Ameuhotep 111 and his queen Ti, 
who helonged to the XYIII dynasty and the loth century b.c. 
This has also been conliimed by other combinations between 
the period in C|uestioii and the X'VIII Egyptian dynasty. 

To this stage belong mo.st of the grave-chamhers at Mycente, 
Orchomenos, Yapliio and others ; the graves discovered by 
Schliemauu in the Acropolis of Mycenay with their unusually 
rich contents, of gold and weapons, are earlier. 

Tims more than LlOO years B.c. there must have been an im- 
migration of a new people into Greece, a people with a higher 
civilisation than that of the old, more barbarian inhabitants. 
The iinuiigraiits principally occupied the isles and the coasts. 
Xotliing indicates that they expelled or annihilated the whole 
body of the former possessors of the country. It was most 
probably something in tlie same way as here in England and in 
Erance, when the Itomans came ; these occupied the country, they 
introducial there a higher civilisation than the old one, hut 
their number was much inferior to that of tlie old inhabitants 
who remained after the occupation. 

The immigrants into Greece came from Asia Minor, probably 
for the most part from Caria, Lydia, and other district.s of the 
western coast. They were influenced by the Hittite civilisation, 
but it is not my meaning that they were themselves llittites, 
properly speaking. 

Greek tradition has much to relate about Pelops, the Kyklopes 
and others who in early times came to Greece from Asia iliiior, 
and about a foreign people living then in Greece and possess- 
ing a very high civili.sution. They are named Pelasgians or 
Tyrrhenians, and sometimes Garians or Lelege.s. All these 
names are found not only in Greece — especially in the isles 



hi Gi'ii'CC I'.Jid Itul-Ij. 




■J t 


and the coa^t9 — Liit also iu the vrestem part of Asia Minor. 
There can be no doubt that the Pelasgians or Tvrilieniaiis 
were the bearer.s of ilycenteau cdvilisatioii. 

It has been generally supposed that the Pelasgiaiis funned 
tlie whole body of tlie old iuhabitaiit.s of Greece before the 
Hellenes. Ihit this was never stated by the Greek authors. 
The Pc-lasgians are only mentioned as a people living in Greece, 
or iu ^ jine parts of it. among.st the indigenous pijpulatiou, long 
l)eforo the elu'.sieal time. 

There is no .sharp diAinctiou made betv.'een Pela.sgians and 
Tyrrhenians by the old Greek authors. Probably the^e two 
names were generic in the same way as Franks now in the 
Levant signify all the Europeans, or as Danes, Swedes, ami 
Xorwegians here in England during the Viking peiiod weie all 
tailed Ibines.’’ 

History tells us that the Pela.sgians at la.st vtere driven out from 
Atliens and most of the other Greek places. Tliose coming from 
Athens took po~.session of tlie isle of Lemnos, where they 
leiuc.iued till about duO ii.c. 

It is evident that the expulsion of the IVdasgiaiis from 
Greece was a consequence of the Dorian migration, whith i-- 
suppose. I to have taken place in the 12th century B.c., ami 
some time after the Trojan war. ilany of the Pela^gians ami of 
the [copies which resulted from tlie amalgamatimi of Pehicgiaii 
and Greek elements — as for instance the lonians — returne.l to 
the Western coast of Asia IMiaor, where they founded the m- 
e riled Ionian colonies. Others took a we.sterly direeiicui to 
C'icily and Italy. 

This is not surprising, Iveau.se it wa.s natural that the ei\ ili- 
'atioir coming from the east to Greece liad a teiideiiey to go 
farther to tlie west, and because we find traces of an intercom -t- 
betweeii Greece and f'icily already iir the ilycemeau [iciiod. 

A great numlier of the L’ela'^uian emigrants from Greece 
came, togellier with kimlred [ieo[ile from .V^^ia i\Iinor to the 
rvesteiii [lart of Central Italy, between the Tiber and the Arno, 
fruiided there numerous colonies, and took [(osse.ssioir cif all 
this rich Country. Here also, as had been the case iu Giecci . 
tbev Were siijieiior in civilisation, luit inferior in number to the 
old inhabit. int^. The greater ]>art of tlie latter remained aitcu 
the occupation, and gradually mingled with the iiew-coiiiem. 

The new occiqiants of the country became best known nn.ler 
the name of Tyrrhenians, as the Greek author.?, m- Etru'car,'-. a- 
the Pomaiis called tln.-m. There is no douht that tiie Tvr- 
rlienians ill Central It. dy and in Gieece Were the same [leoph . 
ami we can thim ex'glain the many affiniti ? iu reliei(.n. ait-, 
and other things betwt.eii the Greeks and the Etru'cair^. 

ViJL. x.Wi. ? 



258 


0. AtoxELl-’'. — Th Tm'.ln.ni ^ 

Tiio Gi\' tivi'litioii a'jii.jL-s fully wiili thi? staifUieiit of the 
c.i:0. Helhuiiko' oif ill the 5rh ceiituiv EX',, relates 

that reux-laue liiiiiL TJies-:!.!!}' caiue to Central Italy, took t'Kjiu 
tile I’nihiiuns KiV'ton and Ctei'e, occupied a yreat part of 

hr. np'ai'da, -arel t- xnded there a iievc L,xi''a. Antikliile- states 
that Tyiiheuian tVli-cians ireni A''ia ilinor came tii Etriiiia ; 
ai-il v,X‘ ieu;eiid..er what Ilolo lotos’ eays about the Tyrrhenian 
emioi J.tioii from Lydi.i to Etnuia. Xaciui-^ relates that the 
Lvdiaix 'till in Lie da ve jo'-ee-eed Etirneuir eloouiueuts, in which 
the Etruecans wete -aid to de-ceiid frc.ru the Lydians, and lirve 
ti.eir iieaiv-i lelatioiis in tlie iVl.'ip.-.r.ue'':,,.. 

T:el~ the ' i inmu IS c-.xple — ^eot by all tiie ohl raithcis. that the 
Etia'-mms '...me to Ceiitici Italy Lv -ea fio’ii the east. The 
eoily ex.epdo.i i.- I'ioiivsii.'S of lialioaiiias^e’S.' wlxi comidered 
ti.eiLi ae ail ii.aLeiious Itriiari pe'iple ; but he lived mole than 
l"oo y.-e.m alter tlie tiioo in cpxestiou ; Ce'.nscqiitntly, hi*' 
p..'1'onai 'viniouhas mo cieatei value than t'nat of a itrodern 
■wiiter. an.'i 1 ih es not cite any tiadiiion or histoiical fact to 
support hi- view. 

I kh'U.v vei V Well the.t the nioderii Getmaii thcxiiv of the 
oi.:.m ri the EliuS'/.’.n.e d'-es not apree with the Gieek tiadi- 
ti-.n. i ut i am ip.uie sure th.u the areineoloeieal laots, in 
i-ential aiilXoitli Italv. aie now sutrieieiitly rveli known, and 
ti.rr they proso- the tuuii of ti.is tiaddiion. 

Iix.olop'i ,il I, a. Is may I'C- summarised as follows; 

I lui iii'j; the 'oi.e.ize a'C'.- thele IS 110 dlftelenee between Xotth 
aiul G'nitral 1‘alv, In both p.iics of the peninsula we can see 
li.e .-.iin.j uuinterru[ite'l evolution, without any .etroiiy leUeiuii 

ii. d’.e-iioe Vv'hieli would iudicitc- a Ire-h inimiyiatiou. F'or 

in the later jeiit of the broiize aoe, all the tmn’os in 
' ' uni-al. a- in Xoith Ital\'. ate simple liollowed out iu 

ike eiouiu!. tvhere the o.-,.^iuaies with the ashes of the ijuri.t 

f '> " fU > ai C‘ I I' ItyMt. 

i)Vii lu tlih' }>cilv-d wludii iroii c' 0 ,uius I*'* uj'i-ear, all llii.s 
ehaii.i'!. ^\'e thou iind a senGi.'le diveleity between the 
iL^tii..!' on either side of tlie Apennines. 

In Xoitii Italy, wiiere the inui anives later tl an in Central 
Itc'.'V, We X 111 and only the imuuulii'te contirniatiisu of tlie old 
etu.iutiaii with it, util (' jut-.-ji and the cii-toni of inciiieiation ; 
V, hdi tiiL- ty]ies of tlie anti'piities are evidently de^ooiidod ftuin 
tla.-n pu dn ,_c,'-(ii's. 

it i- lute that We find iu ( 'eutr.rl Italy aXo euinr .similar 
tend;., ve!t!i buna oiine.s and aiitiouitie.s of tlie same kind as 

' ' t‘-’ '■ 'o T.'i ’OTiius •..£ lIaUk'.iru.o~a;. I, 2--. t'ra^. i-b. 

- If ■■.•a .tax i. ill. ' " 



X O r. T H E E X ITALY. 


B.C, Periods. 


Bi oaze (or Copper) Implements and Weapons. 


iron 

Tim^Iements 


Dae^ers and Swoivls. Ivuires. \\ ea}ions. 


W : ■ ,u- vd. 


Xot 'orneaeianti. >er', erjo-iiti. I .i* .'o' * it.. ' ■ 


1 o Ik 


L'.'C.lUlkS 


, r Small daggers 
I; 1 I Flat (eopper) 1 (eopper), Xo 

s«ords. 

fFlanged: lomd ( Triangular daggers 
j. o J ledges; edge not I I (often with 


much broader, j ] bronze handles), 
not circular. J ( Xo swords. 


j r flanged ; higher i | 

Ic TT I ledges; edge often 1 i o i 

X II 1 L Swords and daggers. 


"j bro.id and cir- ( 

, L cular. J 

T, , / Winged; no step - 1 

\ ridge. j 

p. 0 f Vitiat’d ; slight \ 
\ stop-ridge. j 


TV. 1 / Winged ; high \ 
L siop-ndge. J 


j^TT: 2 PaUtave.s. prin itive. 


Double-edged. 


I Double-edged. 


/ ■•Round, "primi - 1 
I tire, / ' 


•■Pesehieral - ^ 

tvpe. I^=tl->-; = fig. 19 , 20 . r 

disc = hg 1 .* j ' - ’ 

.Larger disc with ] 


Pule, m.; le witli tiie 
I htnl (not with the 
' [” latiie). Kr.grave 1 . 
geometrk.i! ;i i;teri> 


f .Larger disc with ] r — ' 

I spirals. = iig. Large. = fig. 21 , 2 o. 1 t I" 

L 3 -,S. l!r»- 200 . J L-s..-t..j 

r Largedisi- traces I 3,^ ^ 

( lit spirals. J 


I V ill 1 ' .rv.' - ossu.irk's, ' 
pnn.ttr. >■ .i 


Palatltti's (tfi’vu'U.ive- 

Remedi llo. C'nmari -Ij 


I’alaiutos, terraiirare-. 


Palafittes. terrannires. 
C’.isciiia Ranzi. Poie- 
glLino. 

' Pal.ififtos ( Pes.diiera I, 
terianiares. 

Palafittes (Pesehieri). 
terrainares. 


Ca-aleecliio. 


nisniantOTii, Fen- ’ 


Xe hut-urns 


f- Palstaves, thiek. 


• I -- 

a ! “J 


Round, bro.id. 


fXo lor few)'! ............ 

1 ti-aces of i J S^hort eh.muel, =1 (= fig 1 [ ' -''-s'''' ‘ ' ' 'L 1 
•) s-pirals; one i iig !S-<i 7 . j 12 - 11.212 M E -v-sie-. giometrnai ^ 

L tmverse. J t- 


Go'^nirtrlcsil 1 
^l\K* OLi-y I 
rare). J 


Fo;z 


liAloj’Ta \ IknuiCL'i or 


CaprariihEste. J [ l.;!'; 


"Xo i'oriig'i 
ti pe-(in'Ver\ 


f Palstaves, (hick ; t 
1 not eomiuoii. / - 


Round, broad. \ I 

[ coluinon. j 


j l..oii;Zc].sinuol,nobut 
i t'-‘iu = fii^. 0 ^- 70 . 


-| , .7,4-, [Vihireva - essu.iries 

f T r i ^?tain! t*-l ucciEctr.cal S 

J -I 1 ornan'icts. J 


<.V' 


F(V/i Bologna ( Beiiacci 


• No i'oroign 


toioirua { Deiuicci, i , 

IX Y 1 *. ^ • t' pt-^> orvory 

De Lueaj, Lste, J j ^ 


A Palstaves, large, 1 i 
'= j \ thill : rare. ^ J | 


(none rouml). J 


■are] 

,U t FeI 


fVilla’iina - < -suario ' 

' Lone channel, some - 1 . j (lute fc-rni'=i^ Stainiei 

tinjC" with button. > 'I > s ori.aiiiei't'- : uOs iin t’*.- 

= tijr. 105 J ^ -lO. ^ eah 'c.LtaU. .liiiniul'-. 


\ GiYek \aje'. j 

e.\ t rein e 1 y > 
I lare. | 


Pc'/i r Bologna (Arnoahli).l Frw forei 
^.a«e) £ste. [ \ h'P'-''"- 


" r J 


. ^ I'u i f Sone iinitatiens of] 

CVr'osa t\ne, = 1 (id lli 2 , ■ J ,, , .. 

i fig. ] 13-147. / 1 lig. 1) ri h 

I T e r y j L P^-'-tedl. J 

t rare. ^ 


F 0 ' s e f Pezzi. 
r Attic: I'lack-1 w i t li i FossC, 


Lttic : lUacK- I w 1 t 11 1 rossc, i , ^ v - i -I- great iiuiu- 

iigured iind[-, cists of M P { berofforeign 

red-fi.zured. j , w o o il I ^ , 1 t\pe?. 


\_Yiocanit.re 'J s-.. ^Ood. J 


This and the followiuff fist, refer to ni\ work “La Civilisation primitive en Italie." 




C E X T E A L ITALY. 




Bronze (or Copper) Implements and Weapons. 

B.C, 

Periods. 

j t 

Axes. ‘ Daggers and Swords. > Knives. 

j 


Iron 

Implements 

and 

Weapons. 


Xot painted. 


iN’ot serpeggianti. i Serpeggiaati. Iiupasto ituiico. 


Pottorr. 


BiiccUero. 


Localities. 


Painted. 


Uiiburnt 

bodies. 


r ^ 

2100 

I: 1 

1950 

I: 2 

1800 

. II 

1650 M 

!-= EE N ITALY. 

1500 sj I I 

§ HI: 2 ; 

1350 ^ ! I 

IV: 1 


s I 

s 

ij 

<n 

1000 < 

r— t 


Palstaves, thick. 


' Palstaves, large, ' 
thick. 


Swords and daggers 
in bronze slieaths 
(South . Italian 
type). 


700 ' = ' 


Hut-um« 

’ Hut-ums. Villanova - 1 
ossuaries, prinutive. J 


Eound, broad. 


{ Ifo (or few) 
traces of ej)i- 
rals ; one tra- 
verse. 


Short channel. 


f = fig. 241, 1 ! f Villanova - ossu.ir'.os. I 
\ 212 . J ;( Several new :ypos. j 


Geometrical style, pure. ;| j' 


f Common 'i 
I I (swords 1 

I Eound, very broad. | ^ with 
j I I bronze | 

I handles). J 


I 

J Long channel, no 1 / = fig 244 1 , / Common. Aat’orotto. 

, ( button at the end. J \ - 253 . J , \ with spirals. } 


J Piediluco, Goluzzo, I 
\ -Alhano. J 

1 

i Blsenzio, Corncto. j 

1 f Bisenzio.Veji, Xarce, ) 
|\ Corueto, Vulci. etc. / 

! f Veil, Xarcc, Corneto) 


, r Many ne\' 
•{ ttonui') 


f Veii, Xarcc, Corneto 

CreometricaUtyleiwith-l r Fosse, | ^ ) ^■fomba del Guer- 

l J I -I I riero), Vulei, etc. 


.-CO j t 


{ Very rare ; no 1 | | j 

traces of spi- , f I^ng channel, no! f=fig. 2 e 4 ,-|i 
rals ; two tra- f \ button at the ond. J \ 26 o. 
verses. J . 


J Lc»ng cliannol, some - 1 f — fi^. 26 '”^, \ ; 
\ times wuli button j \ 209 , 270 / 


’Lunii iiiannel. with' 


f '• Corto?a-t\pe,'’ =1 
1 tig. 137-l'l^. / 


fLnkrvaved otO ■''Early prekoriutluanl 

; luuiu lit" ^uut 1 J skvphoi, old, fine; I f Posse. 1 

h made with a [ j cut}ii"Coi, 1 only j \ caniei-e. / 

evlindorj. J L aryballoi, / bands. J 


/Ester prokorintliian/ 

.--r V t , skvphoi, — arvballoi. ^ 

! i.ow rehet 1 .* / i i ‘ i r 

' , - 1 I ■ (only bands, or , J rO'?e. 

*1 ^ f ' with animal"). Korin- ' \ eanici'e 

^ 'I ^ tliiun, oriental animals 

^ 0 ^^ men). J 


or , r Fo-,e, j 
rin- ' 1 , eanicre. J 


fKorinthian: men, in-'', 

, >oriptioi'" (.\mr'hu- 

llitra vt lie:'. , raos). Attie ; black- ■ Cainere. s 
' ’ figured "t\ ie, 1 i^Fran- ■ L 

L 


fCervetri (T. Kenu-/ 
j lini-Gaias^lE Pale>- ! r t 
^ tnna (T. Berrar- I ' 

1 dtm), Vcluluina ! ^ 

(T. (. 1 . Duce), etc. ^ 


! j rVeji (Grotta Cam-/ 

! J pana, ]>aintcd), i j 
> < b-, ^ In"i.rip U’ 

j iS arce, (. oi m t- >. ! ^ 

i L Vulci. etc. J 


I r !N »1 co, E G'rnct'' 

^ ^ in -C a .pt.oE". 

b ' uiLi. etc. J ^ 


r Attie : black-figured / 

' "t\ Ic". 2 and 3 . Do., / 
", I't si'lmu.vd stklc", 1 j 
L ,.;r,ii 2 i. J 


'> Caiuere. s 


! e. itrce. 

1 Vudi, 


Cii-mio. 1 

J 


* Vert rare. 




259 


in GrctCi. finj Itoly. 

noitli of tlie Apeimiiies ; but we have there a very great number 
of other tombs with unburnt bodies and a mass of new types, 
which are not descended from the old types of the Italian 
bronze age. -Some of tlie new toinb.s are /bs-se, gras'es of the 
.same kind as tho'e still in use, and accessible fiuin above ; 
others are oimti-c, chambers accessible through an entrance in 
the side. It is generally supposed that the ffise aie older than 
the but this is not quite right. It is true that fosse 

Ijeloug pii'iiicipaily to the tirst part c>f the iron age ; ijut it is 
more than probable tliat cauiere exhted already at the same time 
as the fjsae. dl'e remember tlie round vaulted chambers with 
a passage leading into them, that belong to the ilyceniean period 
in Greece Some graves of the same type have been discovered 
in Etruria, but uiifoitunately we know nothing about their 
contents. The Etumean tombs of this kiiul resemble very 
closely those cif the IMyceiuean or Tyrrhenian period, in Greece, 
and as we have no instances of later objects I'oiuid in the 
former, it is highly pnobable that tlu-y belong to the veiv first 
Tyrrhenian peiiod in Italy. 

The fact that the old mo'le of burial co-existed with the new 
one can be explained withcmt tlifficulty. A great number of the 
old inhabitants had survived the Tyiilienian ocmqialion and 
preseia’ed their iiieincrati>iu and their ^'o-.-.i. "We find the 
iiiciiieration as a more or k^s laro exception, throughout all the 
Etruscan period. 

Thus, we uiidirstand. that the same typos nriy well bo 

found ill si.iiiie y as in sonie/b.su, , oi in "ome t Itut 

this is not the ruh-. and most of the j <y.-J aie certainly older 
than the c-o o /c, Ii' wc- Coiisiiler this, we find alsg that s.mie- 
tliing quite new must have come into Etiuim at the begiuning 
of the iron a,_e ; but that nie.intiiue tlm ill iiojudatiou lung 
remained in Xortli Italy without any coiisideiablo oliange. In 
that part of tlie country no interruption, such a- indie, ;t',-s the 
arrival isf the Etruscans, can be tiaecd bc'f tbe bth century 
c.c. Oiilv at tint I'.-riod we have at llolcna new tomi s with 
uiibui'iit I'odies ami a number of new typ.,^s. 

This agiv-es fully with the history. l.ivv s:iys that tlio 
Etruscan- d.id not traverse the Apennines ,aud leach to Tologaa 
till long after tlieir estahlishment in Etrurin 

As 1 hope to .-how in another ]'aper. tho imnugmnrm of the 
new people, the Etiuseans, into the coiuitiv mina-i after tliem, 
falls ill the lltli century r..C. We know that tin- bis.t Etruscan 
Sfecnlum was considered as beginning about ItAd mo., and the 
beginning of tlie first Etruscan -teciilum cannot well b.ave any 
other meiiiing tlian the inimigiation of the Etius.-,u-, in tie 

p.u’t of Italy where their chroiiologvwa' imlu 'U-i bvr!i.-~ s.i-mhu 



260 0. Mo^:telius. — Tin: Tyrrhenians in Greece and Itedy. 

In tlie name Tyrrlieiioi or T\’rsenoi we have the Greek 
termination -enoi. and the original word Tyrs or Turs. This 
is the same name as Tursa in certain Egyptian inscriptions of 
the 14th or loth century r,.c. I think there can be no difficulty 
in discovering what kind of '■ peoples freirn the sea the 
Egyptians meant by this name. They were the Tyrrhenians in 
the eastern part of the Mediterranean. dVe know that this 
people li\-ed tliere before its coming to Etruria, and it is 
evidently mucli nmre probable that the Tnrsa came to Egypt 
from the ^Egean Sea than from Etrnria. Tloreover, the Tyr- 
rhenians did not exist in Etruria at so early a time as the 
16th or 14tli century B.c. At that period they lived only in 
Greece and Asia Minor. 

The Tyrrhenians, or Pelasgians, survived a very long time in 
some parts of Greece. Herodotos^ states that the isles of 
Lemnos and Imbros liad a Pelasgian population so late as about 
500 E.c. ; at this time Jliltiades expelled them from Lemnos. 
Xow some few years ago a most remarkable inscripti.ni was found 
in Lemnos. The language of this inscription from the Pelasgian 
Lemnos very much resembles the language of the Italian Tyr- 
rhenians (the Etrumans); the inscription was not written by 
an Etruscan, but bv siune one belonging to a nearlv kindred 
people. Thus we have here, firstly, a ci'iifirmation ot the 
identity of the p)eople3 denoted by the names I'elasgi and 
Tyrrhenians, and .Secondly, a pu-oof that on almost identical 
language was sp)oken by the I’elasgians m’ Tyrrhenians in 
Lemnos, and the Tc-rrhenians or Etruscans in Italy. 

M'e may pierhapis undor.stand the Etruscan tpuestion better, if 
we consider it in couddnation with tlie other phases of the 
history of pire-classical civilisation. The Myeemcau civilisa- 
tion is, in my opinion, a very early pha>e of the oriental 
civilisation brought over to Europre ; the Etruscan is a later pdiase 
of the same civilisation penetrating farther t) the west. 

Put, it may be said, if tlie Etruscan civilisation is the con- 
tinuation of the IMycemean, we ought to tind in Etruria a 
number of typjes .similar to the Myceiueaii ones, and siicli finds 
are very rare there. It is true that we do not find very often 
exactly the same types, but some clo.se pruallels we do find. 
AVe Iiave some toiulis in Etruria of tlie same sliapie as the 
Alycemean round vaulted grave-chamhers, with a piassage 
leading into them, and the reason why we cannot find in Italy 
many ohjects of the same kind as the lusual Mycenceaii ones, is 
because these belong mostly to a time anteiior to the Etruscan 
immigration of the 11th century b.c. 

AA e have seen that the later part of the third Alyceiuuan 
' Hill. T, 26 ; Ti, 



0. ]\I0XTELIU5. — Frc-chi^siml Ckronolojy in Gii-'<^cc & It'ihj. 2G1 


stvle was coutemporarv with the loth ceiitary E.C.. and in the 
following peiiod the Myceu.eaii style was decadent, and gave 
place to the so-called Geometrical or Itipyion style. hiid 

also this Geometrical style represented in tlie Etruscan finds 
from a very early date. A nrost remarkalile discovery of that 
kind was made some years agcj hr a tonih at 'S'lilci ; it is nowirr 
the Mrrseuru of Berlin, and has Leetr tigirred for me by the kind 
permission of I'rofes.sor I'urtwairgler. 


Giieoeology in Gnr.r.ct: "nJ Italy. 

By Prof. OsCAU iloxTEUrs. 

Thls important rpiestiorr cannot well be treated separately for 
Greece and Italy, lioth because these two countries have so 
much in common — a great number of th-eck vases and other 
articles Laving iieeir forrnd in Italy — and because the arclueo- 
logical material necessary for the solution of that ipiostiou is 
for the rirorneiit better in Italy than in Greece. We krrow much 
rrnrre aliout the Contents of well examine 1 toml.i.s of the periods irr 
fluestion from ditferent parts of Italy, than from any part of Greece. 
For it is not eiicaigh for the solution of this cpresiioir to have 
■a innaber of aiitinuitics discovered in the ^aiiie necropolis. We 
must know what has I'ecu found in every giave : and, if more 
than one deceased has heeii luiried there, as in the ease of such 
chamhers as the common Etruscan toml.s, we ought to know 
what has been deposited Avitli everyone of them. Antirpiities 
not heloiiging to tonihs must for our purpicse have been 
di'Covered in such ,i way as to make it cdcartliat tluce found in 
the same place were depositeil tlieie at the s.nne time. 

Most of the materials from Greece cannot ho fully used for 
such an investigation as the present. Tlie objects them.scdves 
give «(ime good hints by their form and ornaments; hut the 
hi-tory c.f tile liiids is not suthcieiitly well known. The .«ame 
may be ^aid of many Italian tind<, but a --utlicient amount of 
the Itidi.iu malei'i.d is verv good for our ]iurposc. 

A careful exaimiiatioii of this material has convinced me 
that we can est.ihlish already a ciirouolouioal >ys’.eia of very 
short pciiod^. from the introduelion of metals to the hegiiniing 
of the well-kiiov.ii liistorica! or i-lassieal times. Tlie most 
eliar.ieteiistic tvpes from eveiy period ai<.‘ t j bo seen in the plates ; 
ill the adjoined de.scrii'tion 1 have lor ea h ]ieiio 1 given notices 
of the iiio^t impeiTant types of anthjuities and tomlis, and have 
indicated some of the pl.ices wdiore the ms^t remarkable buds 
have been made. 



0. ilOyTELIU'. — /’/■- -daalC'd Clu-Oii'd>‘j;l 


2G2 


F. d’ Xoitliei'u Italy I Lave distinguished seven perioels ot 
the hi' size aue, and four periods from the heginiiiiig of the iron 
age to the Celtic occupation. 

In Central Italy the evolution dining the bronze age cva.s 
e.xactlv the same north of the Apennines. But frcim the 

he_!ii!iiiig of the iron a.g-e the history of the civdisatioii in 
Etruria is ijuite ditiereiit. Ill Xortherii Italv all the tombs ifoin 
the first pei'iO'ls of the iron age kJci pi'inM fpece u» / /t I'/'o - are ot the 
same kiml as thme from the last periods of the lu'onze age : t!ie 
i'oJice are burnt in the om.-s as in the others and the antii|uitie3 
tiom t'le ilmt iion age are of types formiug the diieet cuutinua- 
lioii of those from the preceding period. f>u the coutraiy we 
!-U 1 in Etruria many gtaves of new types, with unburiit bodies, 
mo^t of the objects depotited with them are of foreign 
types. 

A tvpological study of tliose periods proves that every one of 
them com[iri;es a ccm -ideiable evolution, conseipieutly every 
fieriod must have had a considerable length. This is confirmed 
by the exi.'teiice l,i fh- jdao: of many graves from each 

]ieiiod. The types char.iot eristic of each ].eriod are very often 
met with in the .same find, but tyiies 'oeloiiging to different 
periods are seldom found trygcther, and if this is the case the 
two periods are i/a,/' '.Uaf,.’// sio.o.'aivc. I know only remarkably 
few e.xceptiuns to this rule. 

All this proves tliat c-very ])eriod must be eiptivaleiit at least 
to a century. If it iiad been .shorter, the remains from ditferent 
peri(>ls ought to has '- iieeir mncli more confused. 

Thus we call give flu: relati.i.:. Chrodohjij in tlie succession of 
several periods. 

Can We ul.-^o give flu i.O.-vAiif: Chromjhupj \ Can we fix for 
each }iei'iod the date before Cliiist ? I think we can. 

Through the lately fiuishc-d excavations of Akropolis in Athens, 
we know which clashes of pottery are aiitcrinr of the Bcr'ian 
war. The layer of rulibish from the destruction of the citadel 
111 4S0 n.c. could easily he lecogiiised ; in and below this were 
iound numerous fiagmeuts of red-ligured pottery, not only 
"f the first style, but aho of the second, or fine style. 

ilany Attic vases of that period boar the artist’s name, Sccme 
of the oldest red-figured vasts aie signed l)v the same artists 
— XikostlieuL'S, Iliseliido.s, T’unipliaioc — who made also blaek- 
figiired vase.s of the ihird .style. Ejjiktetos made some vase.s 
with red figures on oiie side and black figures on the other. 
(Jeher artists — Tychios, Tiinagor.as, C'haritaios — have onlv signed 
Icack-tigured vas-es of the third style. Earlier than those are 
the lilack-tigured vases of the second style. Two makers of 
such vases, Ergoteles and Tleson, were sous of Xearclios ; a thiril. 



263 


Lil h'i'iCO: 'hid Ibjhj. 

Eucheiro'^. was a son of Ergotimos. Xoaiclios has signed Llack- 
figured vases of the tirst style or the hegiiiiBine uf the second stvie. 
Eieotiir.os and Klitias are the aitists of the Francois vase, the 
most celebrated reYa-esentative oi the first style (Elate XXIX. 
fig. 4 ). 

Consei|nently every one of these five groups, two red-figured 
and three black-figured, must corre.si-'Oiid to a period eh a 
considerable length, evidently of about, or rather more than 
thirty years, whieh gives to the first style of the Attic black- 
figured pottery the date of the end of the 7 th century b.c. 
Tire hlack-figured vases of the first style must lie older than 
tkii.'Se of the seccind style, and thus second style older than the 
third. A great niunher of the hlack-figured vases of the third 
style are older than those of the hr.-t red-figuivd style, and 
tliese are anterior to the vases of the second re.l-tigurcnrstjde. 

The" Attic Erancyjis vase” is a little later than the " Korinthian 
Amphiaraos vase '’and tlie contenipoiary Korinthian vases with 
liuuian fig'ures an 1 inscriptions. Ihu these vases are later than 
the great group of Korintliian vases with oriental auinvals 
and svitliuut human figures. It is evident that the last named 
" Koriiuhiau vases ’’ ropreseat a s ery long time, because a great 
number of Etruscan toinlis — r.g. at Vulci and Corneto — have 
been diseoverc‘d, whieh contain such vases, Imt no vases of later 
types. 

In some tcauhs the Korinthian vases are associated with so- 
called firoto-K' rinthian or Yuv-Koriiithian aryhalloi, houilivlioi. 
etc. But tliese ton.!,, which are ciiaml.iers contain more than one 
body, so that it is diiticult to decide whether the Yire-Korinthian 
and Korinthian vases were deYiosited at the same time. 

TIany other toiiihs contain such .small Yiro-Korinthian vases 
without any Korinthian ones. Some of tliuse small ]ire- 
Korintliian vases — v.hich evidently fieloiig to an earlier pieriod 
than the Korinthian — are ornamented with a zone of running 
animals, not of the oriental type : on the oldest pre-Korintliian 
vases, only cii!our(.-d haml.s are found. 

From a still ca.ilier time date the skyYihoi of the old. fine 
style (I'late XXYI, fig. IX which are not to he confounded with 
later vases of a siiiiilar form. 

Thus we can go very far liack. but the skyYihoi are not the 
earlie-t painted vns-s coming from Crreece, or the tasteni 
TleditiTranean. To an e.irlicr Y'eriod belong the Acises i,f the 
“ gcumetrie style ' fouml in Italy ; some of them are decoriited 
wnth a row of bird-, generally looking like ducks; the uldc.st 
hate no such ornament. The vases of the ge,nnetrie stvie 
discovered in Italv belong to the same cla-s as th.e ‘'1)1104(111 
vases”; some of tlieni are evidently fa! u'icated in Italy, but 



l! ■ i I*. ^MoXTELIU ". — I Clrj / 

. are (Tiot-k. and very fine vases of pure L'ipyLar stvie 

l.rre lieeii fainil in Etruria as veil as in Sicily, In Sicily, 
n- ar Svracuse, Eieck vases of tlie pieoediiig styLc the Ulyee- 
i,aaui. hive .ihn Leeii met vrth. 

We C-i!i iie’.v Very exactlv fix the dale of the dih'eieiit gioupe 
hlyceiiaraii va^es. Eui twanulei' and Loesclieke have di-liii- 
aai'htd four such groups ; and several discoveries in (IreeCc as 
in Eevpt prove that the later part of the tliivil gioiij — the 
knuv. ii lepresentant of it is the " lliigelk„nne,'''’ or ■' false 
iieik.ol va^e,'' — is coiiteinj.oraneous with the Egyptian king 
Anieuopiiis TIT. vho lived in the hitter half of tlie lath centiUM 
In -c'lUL' ( deck tend s, '■ Eiigelkauiieii" or ilyceineau pottciy cl 
the same period have heeii found together with hronze tiiaih.- 
of the I'e'chieiii type. Coiiseipieiitly, these tiluhe date iroiu the 
lath Century, u f^a;l of tlie greale -t importaiiee tor our question. 

Tl,e Pcseliiera li’iuhe belong to a late part cl the III Bronze- 
peiioil in (Jentral It.dy, and tlie Attic- ivd-tigured va'OS of the 
'ec-oud stvle Ijch'ng to the I\' Etruscan peiioih Thus we 
have on the one side a little more th.in hOQ years Let ween tlie 
l.'th c-eiitiuv li.c, — the date cif tlio.se fihuL'e — and hOO B.C. — the 
date of tin 'c- vases; on the other side We lia\e nine periods 
froin the 1 cginiiiiig of the 'ecoiid ]rai't of tlie III Bronze period 
to the end cf the 11 ’ Etruscan jiericMl. 

Everv c nc of these nine penoiis has hc-en prcivcl to comprise 
,i ccai'ideial'le time, prc.hal/ly of uhovt. the same h-ngth. for eacli 
pc-iiotl ; t ! ;i; c Of / // y V rm/f /// /’ -'/ /e-l'/’c’ AcS'S. -/ aA,n'f C/ h '1 1 %'fl //aa;*', 
I, III I'l'rrr- ^mul h, fin: ci'nhirii iiiilirKffil hi fl, ( p. I’aS). 

In siinie ca-i s wi- can directly control this result. 

The Toiiiici iVEide at Vulci, which I consider to date fioiu 
ih" second }art of the Till cciituiy i;.c'., coiiluiiic-d a scarab 
witii the muiie of the Eev['t:au king I’.samiiictik I. who reiciicd 
dbWC.lA 



date ibr 

lie 

1 Ko: 

lintliian v 

.ises is giceii Ic 

v 1 )r, 

, Or 

Oi 

s 0 ," 

ueful 

'■seal 

iiiiiatiou 

t 

the 

' iiL‘E'rr>] K ills tilt* 

li,ni 

t'lV 

ni 

.AI 

►-Liara 

IIv' 

kea, v,-!i 

: ^ 

1' !L 

Yv'.iS 

de-tl'! iVei 

1 -ltd r. c.ait' 

-V ai 

L fxi- 

ir-11 

i\' ot' 

h-fl 

I'ea.is, 

Th 

it 

had he, -11 

Iblimled !' 1 . 7 


ai.l 

ti 



( re , 

be V.l^eS 

de] 

»( 'V.t.c 

■1 in it.-- 1 

i(.‘i v •!»< iiius 

i ha 

\r 

i e. 

.-11 

iiault' 


ah,,ut the nndille (,f the- sph ;■ iituiy, er perhag- a lillle eailie-' 


her.'n!-,e t 

[u* 

ses 

pl.e o 1 ill 

<1 gt.lVc geuelnllv h.ice hi 

a ‘11 

in me 

t''!' Sollii,* 

tiai" 

hef, 

a-e tie;- interinc-nt, espeeiallv if tie. 

yia 

Vf i-t- 

longs to 1 

'ia* E' 

lUlll 

ly \vltilt_* 

the va.sss have hceii im]/- 

-Ilf*' 

[ from 

.lUotller, 

x.a 

V th 

E (jl'lL'St 

(lieek cases disei ivered 

at A 

■ loLiaia 

Hvbhca ; 

ai>‘ 

uch 

lv< >1 i 

nihiun ones ns 1 luive coi 

I'i'lo 

‘ve.i to 

date lion 

1 tllE 

Stli 

EtaitlliV I 




The 11 

VEln| 

H bis 

ot gyiacU'e lias been C-Ulsiilele 

1 to 

1 

St the 

.HUE 

time 

‘ as t'mt 

ot iMeglua Ilvbhi.a. 1 lecaU'i 

d it is 



2G5 


ill Gicco: and Ituh!. 

recouu il tliat a Karinthian colony was brought over to Syracuse 
bv Archiab in the year 735 B.c. But this does not prove that 
no reeks live.l at' Syracuse before that time. It is never said 
that the colony of Archias was the Greek settlement at 
Svraeiise, and we know of other places where two Greek 
colonies came at dilierent epochs. M. C'avallari has also 
given, some years ago, very interesting reasons for his opinion 
that tliere existed a Greek colony at Sc'racuse before the arrival 
of Archias: and it has been made rpiite clear by the careful 
examinations of M. Or.si that the Greek necropolis of Syracuse 
begdns much earlier than that of iMegara Hyblcea. The great 
diiierence in the contents of the oldest Greek graves at these two 
places cannot be explained Ipv the iu.signiticant distance in time 
between 733 and 727 B.c., the two generally accepted dates of the 
foundation of Syracuse and Megara Hybhea. 

In L'ential Italy the piOto-Etruscan period begins with the 
11th century accoidiiig to iny system. This agrees fully with 
the date gi^■eu by the Etruscans themselves of their establish- 
ment in Etiuria. the first Etruscan sceculinn lieginning at the 
uiidille of that century. 

I know very well that my chronologv differs consideraldy 
from that hitlierto generally accepted. But I canm.it help it. 
I will only add .-^ome few woirff about a remarkable find where 
this difference is .striking. The i;ogulini-Gala.s.si tomb at 
Cei'votii is eommi 'Illy considered to date from tlie end of the 
7th centurv ; it lias even been placed in the beginning of the 
btli ceiituiv. According to my i.ipinioii, it helcaigs to the 
bth century : thus the ditference is alumt 230 or 300 years, 
The i'l asniis fill- my opinions are sununarily these: G) that 
the Bcgulini-l iala-si grave is according to me — as to all 
<ithcr aivlncolegists — ceutciiipeianeous with tlie Beniardini 
graw- at I’ale.strina and the Toinha del Duce at ’\'etuloiiia ; (2) 
that lht.se two later tombs ceiitaiiitd skyphoi of the old style, 
but no other Gietk vases; ('■>) that there was found a silver 
skaphes nf the same leim in the Bogulini-Galassi grave ; (4) 
tliat eeii-egnently tliC'-e tonils must be older than tlie small 
pre-!\oriiitliian and tiie Korinthian vases. Hence fellows: (3) 
that the Begnlini-I ialassi grave is an‘>li older than the Eramaiis 
tase, v.hieh 1 el. mgs to the end ef the 7th Century. f>n the other 
hand, the anieiette ef silver feuiul in the Beguliiii-Galassi 
gni'.e is exactly of the .same type as the anfoivtte in pottery 
often feund in tombs at Xarce and other localities of the 
first j.iute-Etuise.in I eried, er the lllh century: and the enor- 
luons geld tibnki witli a large ili-c ar.'ltw.i travei'-es deyiosited in 
till- l!egnlini-t bda-si grave i-. of ni.irly the same ferni ns the 
1 renze fibiihe vith disc and ri.e traverse (iinmon in the 



0. Montelui-. 






1 )e;_:‘iuniii;j- of tlio pirito-Eti'jscaii time. The puliuettes on tlie 
Eenuliiii-ltaln^-,! fibula are of tlie same sb.i’pe as the palia- 
ettes in tlie palace of Assurnazirpal in Xinirail, fi(jni the fii't 
hall laf the '.'tli century. This palace seems to have he.-ii 
restored hv Sarc'on in the 8tli centiirv; so that it is ditticnlt 


to say if the riio'uieiaii cup.s found in that palace date from 
the bth or the Sth century B.c. ; they re.semhle very iiiui-h 
— but are not identical with — the silver cups discovered in the 
EeyTilini-GaIa''i and the Ilernardini pToves. 

The silver anforette of the Tepulini-Galassi grave, like svaie 
other vases in. tlie same CTave and in the Toinba del Dime at 
A’etulouia, bear in Etruscan letters. Similar inscrip- 

tions have ako been found on other Etruscan vases fiom the 
same peiii )d. Thus the ait of writing was known — and evidently 
common — in Etruria already before the end of the bth century 
n.c. This result is pierhaps astonishing, even .shocking, hut I 
cannot see any difficulty in accepting it. Moreover, if the art of 
writing was known in Etruria in the 9th century, it must also 
have been known iir Greece at the same time. The invention 
of tlm (.irieco-Etruscan alphabet, as an amelioration of the 
Plrcenician one, ought to fall in the 10th century B.c. — if not 
earlier. 


I think that the great difference l.ietween my chronological 
system ami the chronologv commonly accepted hitherto prin- 
cipally depends upon the following reasons. I have U'St looked 
upon fine or some few sides of this complicated prohlem, but I 
have tried tu study every side of it: tombs and other deposits, 
in Italy and in Greece, pottery and broirzes, personal ornaments, 
vfeapons and impdements, the evulutioii uf the tvpes aird the 
mode of decciration. I liave considered the arclueohmical facts 
— T'relii'torical and classical — in Italy, Greece, and the (Jiient, 
as Well as the hints given by tire history. And fur the ahsolnte 
clironuhigy, T am not only going hack from the fust picriod 
which is Well known from Greek history. I have also an inde- 
P'endeiit pioiiit of dcp'artnre high up) in the pre-elas.'ical jieriud, 
ill the l.jth century n.o. This makes it pios-ilile for me to date 
all the periods filling up) tiro whole space between that time 
and the Persian war. 

Evidently what I liave had the honour to say tfj-day canncit 
be the la^t word in this impioitant and compdicated i[Ucstioi!, 
ljut I have thought it tu be the best, if some one would risk his 
neck ill constructing a complete chronological svstem, that can 
lie carelully e.xamined and corrected where it p'l'oves not tf) be 
all right. Therefore. I now liave dared to do so. 



Odd It'd'J. 2tj7 

Mr. E Evaxs 5Eiitl the Iiiitituto, in company wiih tlie 

AntlirupoLjaicM Section at Liveriiool, might congratulate them- 
selves as having ueen the tirst recipient of some of the most 
imp'Oitant generalisations arrived at fiy Dr, Moiitelius in his 
comprehensive study of primitive Italian civilisation. His sub- 
division of the Italian Bronze and Early Iron ages into a number 
of distinct eliiuiK ilogieal periods showed the further application of 
the p.riiiciples alieady so successfully worked out lay him in his 
mc'iiogrcipli on the Bronze Age chronology of Scandinavia. 
Among the general results ohtained. none was of greater impor- 
tance than the demonstration that while north of the Apennines 
the evolution of forms was continuous down to the close of the 
Bronze Age, south of this chain there was evidence daring the 
later part of that period of a considerable break in coutimiity 
accompanied liy the wholesale intrusion of exotic forms. Mr. 
Evans agreed with Dr. iMontelius tliat many of these new 
elements might lie described as late Myceruean, and noted that 
this ingredient was specially ohservable in the south of the 
peninsula. 

So far as Etrinia was coucerued, the archfcologieal facts 
agreed very well with the date assigned by native tradition to 
tlie first arrival of the Etru.scans or Tyrrhenians in the 11th 
century E.c. As to the Asiatic origin of the ^Mycenrean civilisa- 
tion, however, Mr. Evans was imt able to follow the author of 
the present eomiiiunicatious. That tliere wore laige (.Iriental 
factors as well as Eeyptiau in ilyceiia-an civilisation was evident, 
liut it was ecptally clear that many of its mot elements had 
grciwu up on Mgean soil. The liee-liive toml.is of Asia Minor, 
so far as they had been de.-crilieil, were later than those of 
Myceiite. Like many otln-v comparatively late pdieunmena 
there and in Cyprus, they re^'i’csented a tide of influonce from 
the Migeau side — tiie Linns of Arslan Kaya, for iiistance. 
lieing a remote echo of tb.ose of the Lions’ (date. As far a? he 
knew the earlie.st liee-hive tombs approaching the IMyceiifean 
typo Were the rotk-cnt tomb.s of llie later stone, or Hlneolitliic, 
p.eriod in Sicily. The rel.itioiiship in this case pointed rather 
to a Western than an eastern connexion. Inasmuch, hriwever. as 
Myi-eiuean culture undoubtedly iutlueuced the Auatcili.iu coast- 
lands t swards the clcise of the Myceiiteaii perioil, the question 
of the ultimate .'•ource of tliat culture did not attect the piassi- 
bility of Tynlieiiian emigrants from that quarter h.aving in the 
11th century E.c. imported certain late iMycemcan elements into 
Italy. 

That the Tyrrhenes were the Turshas of the Egyptian moiiu- 
meuis. and ,'s such closely connected with various peoples of 
primitive Diei ce.the .Egean islands, and the western coastlaiids 



2GS 


0 . ■ /-' 

of Asia iMinor. seemed a most probaUe cor-clu^isai. As to their 
exact relation to the 1‘ela'uiaiis, however, the evi.leuee 'eemed to 
lack la’eei'ioii. Xeither did there seem any sufhcient rea-oii for 
coiitiiiine to this XyiTheiiiaii element the late Xlvccnjerii intiii- 
eiice on iniinitive Italy. i\Ir. Evans hiuiselt Ijelieved that he 
had found conclusive evidence that the early lajinan traditions 
of an Arcadian settleuieut coveretl a histm'ic fact, a.nd were 
accompanied by unmistakeable traces of religious beliefs coin- 
uion to Xlyceraean (freece. 

Une piart of Dr. l.lontelins' conclusion.s was nothing less than 
revolutionary. This was Ids deliberate expi'es^ion of opinion 
that the Iteeulini-I hdassi tomb at Cervetri, and other typical 
deposits of the same character, such as the l!eruardini t"iub at 
I’ulestrina, the Tomba del Duerriero at Corueto-TarouiiiLi, and 
the Tomba del l)uce at X'etulonia must be referred, not as 
hitherto generally believed, to the (tiid of the 7lh or even to 
the bth. but to the 9t!i century n.c. Tlds view, if accei)ted, 
must wholly change the received chronology of tlie Early Iron 
Age remains of Italy : hut startling as it was. coming from such 
a high authcirity who adduced in it.s sn]''p''’A a wliole series of 
parallel data, it deserved the closest attention, ilr. Evans con- 
fessed that tiersonally he had long viewed the comparatively 
late date assigned to this most important group of iiitermeuts 
with the greatest suspieioii. It Iiad indeed seemed to liim rpiite 
iiTGCoiieileahle with Certain phenomena presciiteil Iw them, such 
as the occurrence of small silver amplii.u-as identical with vases 
found in well tombs or of early type, such as those of 

All ^anr). 

A giave diti'eully was imlec-d suggested l>y the occuireiiee in 
these tombs of inscribed objects with Etruscan U' well as 
I’lio nieiaii ehar.ieters. Dr. llcl'iiig — fioiii the fact tliat exact 
reckon! iig.s of tlie Etruscan biJxalij (the length of whieh was, 
detormiued by the loimcst life in each) only begin with tiie oth 
century in Gd-l n.c. — hail deduced tlie coiiclusiou that the iiitro- 
'liieticiu of writing mv.st have taken jdace at si, me date lietweeii 
tlie heu'.niiine' and end cif the ceiitnrv in-eceding tins. Xloieover, 
the L’halkidiau oiiuln of the Etruscan alphabet was geneuilly 
lecogiiisci), and Cumre — the eailie--t (fhalkiilian eoloiiv in 
Italy — was. aecordinu to the n c-eived date, founded ill 7-''U. 
lioin tlie-o gToumls Ilelbie had deihiced the eonelusion that 
the kiiowhslee of letters i ould only lui\e leaehed the Etruscans 
abijut the middle ot the 7th centurv. 

Ill answer to this I'r. INInntelius brought forward the aitiniui- 
tive statement that (fuinie was foumled in lOdlb but, even if 
-uch an eaily date for a (Jlialkiili.m colonv eould be sub- 
stantiated. it would be nolle the less ! remarkable pi leiiomenou 



ill Greece and Itahj. 


2G9 


to find a whole series of Etriiscau inscriptions earlier hy at least 
two centuries than the earliest records of Chalkidian writing in 
Italy. 

It innst indeed he remembered that the Etru.scan alphabet 
contained some very archaic forms, and that a comparative study 
of the Greek and riioi-nician alphabets showed that Certain fiieek 
letters must have been taken over at an earlier date than that 
of the iMoabite Stone, which belonged to the lieginniiig of the 
9th century E.c. But, admitting all this, was it proliable that 
these Etruscan inscription — them.selves derived from the Greek 
and only at second-hand from the Phceirician — could go back, 
as was required by Dr. Montelins’ system, approximately to 
the date of the earliest known Phcenician inscription \ In this 
group of Etruscan depcisits with which he was dealing, Phceni- 
cian inscribed objects also occurred, but the letter-forms on these 
were of a later type than that of the Moabite Stone, and had 
indeed been compared by Semitic epigrailii.sts to those of the 
Assyrian tablets of the Ttli century E.c. In ilr. Evans’ opinion 
the Etruscan letters were the outcome of a growing cominereial 
contact with Greece which culminated in the actual colonization 
of South Italy, and in tliis case the first appearance of Etruscan 
inscribed objects might be more or less contemporaneous with 
the fii-^t period of Gieek settlement in the la^t half of the Sth 
century. 

He could Hot agree with Dr. l\Iontelius that a comparative 
study of the relics from the early cemeteries of Syracuse and 
Megara Hylihea necessarily involved the eoiiclusiuu that the 
Greek settlenieiit at Syracuse took place much earlier than at 
IMegara. The weight of historic evidence was decidedly against 
this, and it might very well be that the earliest colonial tombs of 
IMegara Hybhxa still remained to be discovered. But the pre- 
Hellenic tomb.-^ of that part of Sicily bore witne'S none the loss 
to a c-ontimious comniereial intercourse between the Sikels and 
the early inhahitant.s of Greece from TIvoeiucan times onwards. 
These pre-colonial influences might, as alrealy si’.ggested, ex[)lain 
some of the Etruscan phenoinena. 

In conclusion, Mr. Evans said that though in his opinion 
Dr. TIoiUtTius was right in protesting auain-t the unduly late 
date assigned to this interesting grou'p e.f Etruscan aud'earlv 
Latin tnmli'. he personally felt himself unublo to niuve up their 
chromilogy heyond the latter half of the Sth eentuiv li.c. There 
were indeed in these deposits certain metal work reliefs, as for 
instance a silver sheath from the Bernardini temli at I’alestrina, 
which must, he thought, be regarded as inqiorted article.^ 
from Greece, and which answered to tie -^tyle of the figured 
representations on some gold hands and diadems found in the 



-2iU 0. MoNTELirS. — Pii'-c’uSio:''’ Ch 

late Dipvloii toni' is at Atlieii.^, anJ ccutaiiiiiig vases ef the style 
which immediately preceded the “ Eaily Attic/' The associa- 
tions in which these objects were fotiud at Athens tended to 
show that they belonged to the 8th centiuy B.c., and they 
Seemed to him to be of capital importance in dating the grou[> 
en’ Italian depjsits then under discussion. 

Mr. J. L. Mrrms saul that the account given ly Dr. ilontelius 
ot the Tyrrhenians in Italy, as having entereel Etruria from the 
.-ea. at or about the date indicated liv the Etruscan era, cptoted 
hv him, would seem to give an intelligible explanation of many 
points in the history and civilisation of that people, more 
especially as their movement we.stwards may thus lie closely 
comii eted witli t'le series of inovenients of maritime peoples in 
*Egean and Libyan waters, of which the Egvptian record gives 
us more than one glimpse, and which Greek tradition vaguely 
leiiieuihered uud>n' the name of the Sea-Empiire of Minos. 

Lut Dr. Moiitelius did not bring clear evidence in support of 
his theory that, not the Etruscan civilisation only, but also the 
Myceiio.an (to which he rightly ahiliatcs it; can bo traced back 
to a common origin in Asia Minor. 

Tiie hypothesis of Drs. Koehler and Diimmler, that the 
Mycc-uteaii peo[ole3 in Greece and the islands of the Mgean 
eiiiaiiated from Karia, was published ahout ten years ago, at a 
time when onlv- literary and traditional evidence was available, 
and Karia itscdf was practic.ally unexplored. 

Gnlike Milchuoefer's ecpaally hvpothetieal suggestion of a 
Cnf'Ut origin, the “ Karian theory'" Isas not Ijeeii borne out by 
-ideeipient leseaich on the Karian coa.st. M'e are now in a 
position to state tliat whereas Mycenman settlements exist in 
aliuc'.et all the islands which fringe that coast, they liave been 
looked for in vain on the in.iinland, and it is now practically 
Certain that Karia, so far from contributing anything to the 
Mycemean civilisation in its rise, or at its culmination, did not 
even liegin to feel the iuduence of that nio.st contagious culture, 
until the period when geometrical ornament had succeeded 
uaturalietic, and the filmhe wei'e already well bowed, like the 
earliest types from (Jlymptia, and from sub-ilyceiueaii sites in 
(/yprun. Similarly in Lydi.i, the evidence is at pre'C-ut all in 
favour of late Mycemean impiortations into a comparatively 
barbarous area, and against any theory of an emigration of culture 
from the Tnaiulaiid into the rEgeaii. 

The only period at which adventure and emigration from 
Karia and the_ neighbouring coast can be traced is in the period 
which definitely succeetls the Mycemean age ; it is asserted 
'noth hy Greek tradition, and by such finds as the Karian 



271 


i.i Gi'llcc ati'J It'jJii. 

lyrajvti ut Abu-Siiiil.el in Egypt ; and can tlius be dated 
between tlie lUtli and the 7tli centuries B.C. 

With regard to the Tyrrhenians themselt'es, it is not improb- 
able, as Dr. Biinton has argued on philological grounds, that 
their nearest connections are among the Beidier races of Xorth 
Africa. They are represented thioughout in Greek historical 
tradition as the associates, in commerce and piracy, of Carthage 
ill the Gtl'i and oth centuries B.C., and some of the types of 
pottery from recent excavations at Carthage would seem to 
carry a similarity of culture up to the Stii or early 7th century. 

Dr. Sergi’s theory of a Lydo-Tyrrheuian emigration of 
“ belated Pelasgians ” {Pdo-iji tanUcl), as indicated on the sketch 
map in his last paper,’ resembles that of Dr. iMontelius, but 
as Dr. Sergi has not clearly indicated the date at which he 
supposes the migration to have taken jilaee, it would Ije pre- 
mature to examine it by historical, or archteological criteria ; hut, 
for the reasons already stated, it can hardly be dated later than 
the p/v-Myceutean age. 

Professor PiDGWAY expressed his satisfaction at finding that 
the view of which he had given a brief sunnuavy in the 
“ Academy ” in duly, 1S95, aud which he had published at length 
in the ‘-douvnal of Hellenic Stiulies (April, ls06), had the 
suppoit of two of the most distinguished living arcluechgi^ts. 
Profossor Wontelius and Hr. A. J. Evans. He proceeded to show 
that whilst the Hyeentean age was that of bronze, the Aclu'eans 
of the Homeric p^ems were in tlie ircu age. He I'oiutcd out 
that the Aehnan civilisation coincided with that of the 
Halsiadt period. The graves at Glasiiiatz in Bosnia disclose a 
]ieople who used iron for tlieir cutting iiuidements (swords, 
knives, spears), as did theAclueans: they had bronze helmets 
and greaves, thus corresponding to the “ hrazen-greaved 
Aclucaiis ■’ ; they had shields with bosses such as those men- 
tioned ill Homer; tliey had no engraved stones, but only had 
aniher and blue glass fur ornaments, again agreeing completelv 
with theAclueans. He hoited to show in a forthcoming volume 
that the AcluTeaiis had passed into The-saly from Epirus, 
the very region where such remains as tho-e at Glasinatz were 
now being found. 


' “ Orig'ne e Diffusior.e Jella Stiqie iIedi;en’.iiu'A Eomi," IsCo. 



I'l. H. IMatiiews. — The Burlan'j of 


The BCkbl'XG of the ‘Wikadtjutj Tuibbs. (Part II.) 

By E. H. Mathews, L.S. 

Ix a former communieatioiB to the Aiitliropological Iii.'titute, 
I deseiilieil the Burhung of the tilhes helongiiig to tim IViraJ- 
thiu’i eommunity ueeupyiiig that part of Xcw Soiuh Vihile-.- 
watered by the lower portion? of the Macipaarie, Caetlereagh, 
and Bogan rivers, with their afthient.s and liranehe?. A.s I liad 
to abridge that article in order to keep it within rea.sonable 
limits, I stated that on a future occasion I would prepare a 
supplementary paper describing the most important parts of 
the ceremonies in a more extended form.- In fultilment of 
that promise, the present article has been prepareil, in which I 
shall deal with the AViradtliuri tribes spread over the upper 
prortions of the rivers ahove mentioned, extending southerly to 
the dividing range hctween the Lachlan and 5luirumhidgee 
rivers, including within that area the tribes resident on the 
upper piurt of the former river and its numerr.ats tributaries. 

In my original communication, tlie muiinerof summoning tiie 
several tribes to attend tlie Burbung," and their arrival at the 
main campd was explained, tlie Burhuiig ground with its 
imagery and surroundings was carefully described, ' tlie pre- 
liminary daily pierfornianees at the ring were particularly 
detaiieii.'' It will ho unnecessary, tlierefore, to include any 
further information respaectiiig these parts of tlie ceremonies in 
the piresent papier. In tlie following pages I shall endeavour 
to more fully dc^crilie tlie manner of removing the novices from 
the main carapi, and to supply ctimprelien.sive details of the 
important secret ceremonies in tlie husli, tliese divisions of 
tlie suhject liaving been ratlier briefly deflned in my former 
memoir. 

Talinj cum [I the 7<ey-i. — Duiiiig tiie iiigiit puoccdiiig tlie taking 
away of tlie novices,’ considerable sexual liceii.-e is allowed 
between tlie men and women, wlietlier married or -.ingle. Tliis 
liberty i.s accorded only to those piarties who would lie permitted 
to marry each other in conformity with the tribal law.-^, but 
would not be extended to the iiovice.s. The next iimrniiig all 

* ‘‘Ti'.e Burbung of the Wiradtliuri IrUies,'' “ Journ. Authivp. Inst ," xxv. 
2:i.5-3ls, 

- ''Journ. Antlirop. Inst.,” xxt, 297. 

Loc. riL, 303-3eio. 

■* '■ Journ. Antlirop. Inst.,'’ ssv, 303-307. 

■’ Ili.l., 2‘.l<l-303. 

^ 3o7. 

' As stated in my former paper, tlie time for tating the niyC-es aivay from 
the camp is Hxeil by tlie headmen, after the arrival ot ail the tr.l cs ivlio are 
expected to be present; at the coreminy. “ Journ. Anthrop. Inst , ’ xxv, oUT. 



ihc IViradthuri Tribes. 


273 

the men commence shouting before daylight, and as soon as it 
is clear enough, every one in the entire camp shift up close to 
the ringd Some men cut hushes and Ining them alongside for 
use in covering the women presently, and rugs and blankets are 
also gathered out of the camp for the same purpose. Every 
novice had a guardian- assigned him by the headmen, such 
guardian being selected from among the initiated men of the 
class and totem with which the novice was entitled to inter- 
marry. These guardians did not act openly, because the women 
were present, and they did not wish the latter to know that 
they were taking a prominent part in the proceedings, but got 
some of their brothers, who may be called their assistants, to 
act for them until the women were covered up. Each assistant 
took his novice in charge and invested him with all the articles 
comprising the dress of a man of the tribe. This dress con- 
sisted of a girdle round the waist, under which were inserted 
four kilts or tails {burran), one of these tails hanging down in 
front, one behind, and one on each side. A net band was 
fastened round the forehea<l, and a somewhat similar band 
around each of the upper arms. Coloured feathers of the 
cockatoo and other birds were inserted in the boys’ hair.^ 

The sisters of the novice and those of the guardian now 
painted him red all over his body and limbs, after which a 
brother of the guardian led him into the ring and placed him 
sitting down on some bark close to the embankment forming 
its boundary. The novices belonging to each tribe were kept 
in a group by themselves, all having their heads bowed down, on 
the side of the ring nearest to their own iirjvoranljang or country.* 
The mothers of the novices are now brought up and are placed 
sitting down in a row just outside the einhankmeut hounding 
the ring,= each mother being immediately behind her son. She 
sits in such a position that she can hold in her hand the tail 
which is attached to the left side of her son's girdle. 

To make the position of the boys and their mothers more 
clearly understood, we will suppose that the tribe from Cowra, 
on the Lachlan river, are pre.seiit. All the C'otvra novices would 
be placed sitting in a row within the embankment, on the side 
of the ring nearest Cowra. The mothers of the novices would 
he just outside the ring; their female relatives would he just 
behind the mothers, and all the other Cowra women ami 

* See Plates XXV and XXYI, of my first paper, ar.d the descriptions oi 
them. “ Joum. Anthrop. Inst.,’’ xxt, 299-303 and 314 - 315 . 

' ** Journ. Anthrop. Iiist..'* xxv, 30S. 

Loc. vit , 3 ( 

Zoc. cif , 3uS. 

The bounJarr of the circle is generally formed by a raised earihen emlanh- 
ment. Zoc cit., 29i.K /ioft- 1. 

VOL, XXVI. T 



274 


11 H. Ma-:k: 


r:r&.— ne BZirU ,.j of 
c'lnlJreu ■«'oul(l be farther l)ack. The novices Lelouiiiue to each 

^ o O 

of the other tri'oes present, and their female relations, would be 
similarl}' placed in groups by themselves at different places 
around the circle. 

All the women and children are now directed to lie down, 
v.ith their face, turned awav from the ring, and a number of 
the men proceed to cover them over with the rugs and bushes 
which they have in readiness. These men, with spears in their 
hands, then watch the women to see that the covering is not 
interfered with.’^ Little children, who cannot speak, are not 
covered up, hut are allowed to rem.tiu standing or sitting 
among the women, because they are not able to report anything 
which they may see. 

bViieu all these preliminaries had been satisfactorily arrangeil, 
the headmen gave the signal, and two men commenced vigoroush' 
.soundingl ndl-roarerscluse at hand, in the direction of the goombo ; 
and several men came along the track from the .same direction, 
each man carrying in one hand a paeee of hark, called iiiuivju, 
previuudy dreciihed.- These men entered the ring through the 
iipeitiiig’ 111 the bank, and ran round, hitting the ground heavily 
with the pieces of hark referred to, hut not uttering any e.Keliima- 
tiiin, and then withdrew. The other men .standing about the 
ling shouted, and during the combined noise of the bull-roarers, 
the sliiiutiiig, and the beating of the ground, eachguardian came 
forward, ami caught his novice by the arud and led him with 
downcast eyes out of the circle and along the track. The head- 
men, and luo.st of the young fellows officiating in the ceremonies 
at the ring, also went with them. 

Dining the din and clamour produced at the ring while the 
novices are being taken away, some of the men pick up a few 
articles belonging to the women, such as dilly-bags, yamsticks, 
or the like, and scatter them ahout.^ Fire-slicks are also 
tlirijwn clo-e to where the women are lying, to imjiress them 
with the prejudice which Dhurramoolun is said to have against 
woiuankiud. Some of the men who are standing around take 
up some of the little chihlren, who are not old enough to talk — 
and cannot therefore lejiort anything to their mothers — and 
mark their bodies with a few spots or stripes of paint, the 
women being led to believe that the evil spirit did this when he 
was taking the novices out of the ring. 

lien the guardians and novices are out of .sight, the men 
take the covering off the women and children, who then get up 

* Joiirn. Arthrop. Inst xxr. 30S. 

” Loc. cif., Plate XX.yi, 40. 

^ Ili'L, ‘2[)U 

^ “ Journ. An^hrop. Inst Xiv, SOS. 


^ Loc. Cit., 30S, 



the Wimdthuri Tribes. 275 

and look avounJd They all feel more or less awe-struck, 
particularly the young women and children who have never been 
to a Burbung pre^•iously. The scene before them — the deserted 
ring, the luiniing sticks, and their own effects scattered about, 
has a very depressing effect upon their feelings, which usually 
finds vent in cries and lamentations, especially among the 
mothers and siscers of the novices. 

As the novices rise to their feet at the time they were taken 
away from the circle, the tails Qjiirran) which were held in 
their mothers’ hands, as before stated, separated from their 
girdles. These tails were taken possession of by the mothers, 
and will be returned to tlieir sons later on. 

When the excitement has subsided, all the women and 
children l)ehjnging to the different tribes present in tlie main 
encampment, pack up their effects, and with the lielp of a few 
of the men of each tribe who have been left with them, they 
start away and form another camp at some place which has been 
determined by the headmen, where they take up their respective 
quarters in accordance with their usual custom of each tribe 
occupying the side nearest their own country,- This new camp- 
ing ground may be only a short distance off, or it may be several 
mile.s, according to the rerpiirements and conveniences of all the 
trilies present at tlie ceremonies. 

Ccrci/ionies in the Bush . — As before stated, the guardians 
have taken the novices out of sight along the track leading to 
the sacred ground. They march on past the image of Dhurra- 
moolun, the marked trees, and the goombo, tlie novices not 
being allowed to see anything, but are obliged to keep their 
eyes cast upon the ground at their feet. When they get a little 
way lieyond the goombo,” the novices are placed lying down on 
their sides on the ground, and a lug thrown over each of them, 
where they are kept for a short time, perhaps a quarter, or half 
an hour. This stoppage is made for the purpose of allowing the 
hjoriiijul* and other men who intend going into the bush with 
the boys, to collect their weapons and other things, and get 
ready generally. Every man of the koorinijat paints himself 
with powdered charcoal, or burnt grass, mixed with grease, 
which gives their bodies a .shiny black appearance. 

When the men overtake the boys at this halting place, a 
number of the ho-rrino'il go a few piaces away, and sitting down. 


^ Joiirn. Antlirop. Inst.,’* xxt, 303. 

- Loc i It , 308 , 309 . 

^ “ Journ. Antlii'op. Inst.,” x\t, 300, Plate XAT. Xo. 13. 

^ The kooritigal are a band of wairiors and athletes who ace rapinv the 
gn irdian^ into the bu'h, a^d as^ ^t the cliief men to curfv out all th ' f >rinali"ie 3 
tf iiiituitbjii. Juurn. Anthi\'p. lust.," xxv, 3-8. 

1 ’ 2 



276 


E. H. Mathews. — The Barutinj of 


commence hitting the ground with the palms of their open 
hands. They have small twigs and long grass fastened in their 
liair, to give them a ludicrous appearance. The novices are 
then helped to their feet, and the rug adjusted on the head of 
each in such a way that a small opening is left at the face to 
allow of the hoy seeing tlie ground at his feet as he walks along 
with his head bent down : he could also see anything he was 
directed to look at. Tlie guardians explain to the novices that 
they will not he permitted to speak, or to laugh at anything 
that may he shown them in the hush ; that they must pay 
great attention to everything that is said or clone, and not he 
afraid. Their faces are now turned towards the men who are 
heating the ground, and they are directed to raise their heads 
and loolc at them for a few minutes. 

The guardians now bend down the heads of the novices, and 
conduct them into the bush to a place which had pn-evioiisly 
been agreed upon lo- the headmen.^ Such a camp would be in 
the proximity of a creek or waterhole, and where there was 
plenty of wood for fuel. On arriving at the appointed place, a 
camp is selected for the novices, and they are placed lying on 
the ground, the rugs remaining on their heads. The men camp 
close to them, aucl prepare a corroboree ground by removing 
all loo.se rubbish from the surface of a level spot near the 
camp. 

That night, shortly after dark, the kooriiir/cd muster on the 
cleared space referred to, on the other side of the fire at the 
men's camp, and yday the wood-duck. Tlie boys are brought 
out of their own camp, and are placed sitting in a row on the 
otlier side of the fire. The looringfl walk past the tire flapping 
their hands on their hiy>s, and imitating the ryuacking of the 
wood-duck. When they have all passed into the darkness, they 
return past the fire in the same maimer into the darkness on 
the other .side. This is repe.ated for some time, when the novices 
are again taken back to tlieir own rpiarters by their guardians, 
who camped with them, and everyone retired to rest for the 
night. 

An lionr or two before davlight next morning, all hands are 
roused by the headmen. All the people are now divided into 
little mobs or groups, each of which proceed in different 
directions, going about a hundred yards from the camp where 
they had been all night, — which, for convenience of reference, 
may be called “ Xo. 1 camp.'’ The distance wliich each group 
goes from the camp need not he equal, but is regulated by the 
suitability of the ground. The novices, each having his 
guardian witii him, are taken away in the.se mob-s, — some going 
' “ Joum. Anthrop. Inst.,” xxt, 300. 



the W iradtJiuri Tribes. 


277 


■witli one group, and some with another^ Some of the groups 
would perhaps have no novices with tliem. Each of these 
groups light a fire at the place where they halt, and remain 
there till about daylight or sunrise, and have breakfast there. 

All these little mobs then re-unite, and clear another corro- 
tioree ground a little way from the one the}' prepared the previous 
evening at “Xo. 1.” On tliis new corroboree ground the 
hoorinrjal play the porcupine, imitating that animal before the 
boys, who are ranged on one side, and are directed to look at 
the performance. The guardians then take the novices back to 
the little camps they had severally come from, and remain 
there with them. During the day the painting on the bodies 
of the novices is carefully renewed. As the novices are not 
permitted to speak, if they require anything they must make 
signs to their guardian.s. If a boy wants to attend to any 
necessity of nature he is taken about ten paces away from the 
camp, where the guardian digs a hole for the purpose, which he 
again fills up with earth after it has been used. 

The I'oorin/jal and other men who may be accompanying 
them then go out hunting to obtain food for the novices and 
their guardians. On returning late in the afternoon with the 
game caught during the day, some of it is cooked by the 
I'ooringal for the novices. The bones and sinews are taken out 
of the meat which is prepared for them, and is taken to them 
by their guardians. Some of the old men go round to see that 
the novices’ food is dressed and cooked accordiug to rule. "When 
the groups of men and boys have partaken of the evening repast, 
they are all mustered together again, and go to “ Xo. 1 camn,” 
tnat IS to say, the .same place where they camped the previous 
night, the novices and their guardians going into their own 
quarters as before. 

Some time after dark, the novices are biuught out to one side 
of the camp fire, and several of the kooriwjal men climb up a 
tree growing close by, some going into one branch ami come 
into another. They then imitate the noise made by opossums, 
and ndeturate down out of the tree, representing a haliit of that 
animal when it first goes out of its hole on to a branch of a tree. 
The men tlmii come down out of the branches and run along on 
their hands and feet past the camp tire, winch finishes the 
performance.- The boys are taken back to tlieir camp, and 
everyone — men and boys — go to sleep. 

' Each of these little camps is called a Ivulul. Every novice is taken aivay 
from “■ Xo. 1 camp " to a huiihid situated in the direction oppo-ite cr contrary 
tQ that of his own countrv, 

' Although I liive ineutioncd only one play in the morning and one in the 
CTening, tliere may be tv>o or mo?’e different perrormances in succession each 
time. Thi> applies to every daj's proceedings. 



273 E. H. — Tit-: Btirluitj if 

Xext morning, before daylight, all hands are roiiseil up, and 
radiate away from the camp in little groups as on previiuis 
occasions, but going to new places. After Ijreakfast, another 
patch of ground is cleared and the hjorhigal play ThooiiJJioo, or 
black swans. They have grass and bushes tied in their hair, 
and walk past abreast, imitating the waddling gait of swans, 
the boys looking at them as usual. The hjoriiigal then go out 
hunting, and the novioe=;, with their respective guardians, go 
back to the small camps they were taken to in the eaily 
morning. On the return of the hunters in the afternoon, food 
is prepared and given to the novices in the usual manner, after 
which the whole assembly go into their old rpiarters at “ Xo. 1.” 

A little while before sundown the Inill-roarer wa^ sounded 
somewhere close at hand, and the old men gave each novice 
some human excrement which they were eompeJh'fi to eat.^ 
During the evening some urine was collected in a coolamin, and 
given to the novices to drink when they were thir.sty. It may 
be mentioned here that all the pla\ s and other performances of 
the kovringal while out in the bush with the boys contain many 
obscene gestures and filthy practices ; and it is remarkable that 
we find exhibitions of a soiuewbat similar character among the 
customs of other savage races- in diftereiit parts of the world. 

The following morning, an hour or two before daylight, the 
old men call up the entire camp, which is again divided into 
little groups who radiate vonnd the main camp as on the 
previous morning. On this occasion, however, these groups 
do not go to the same spots as before, but each litrlo mob 
selects a fresh place at which to light their fire, and remain 
till daylight. After breakfast another new corroboic-e ground 
is prepared and the boys Inought into it. The loorimjid play 
gum-uiar, or a windstorm ; they go along one alter the other, 
shouting and fireaking down sa]iliug3 and pulling up smaller 
bushes by the roots. After tliis the guardians and buc's divide 
into groups and go back to their little camping places, and the 
kooringal and other men again go out hunting, and return to the 
camp early in the afternoon. 

The remainder of the day should he devrited to the extraction 
of one of the central upper incisor teetlT of each novice, hut 
this custom has of recent years fallen into disuse owing to the 
occupation of the country by the white people. Two of the (dd 
headmen, however, gave me the following account of the process, 

^ “ Journ. Anthrop. Inst.,” xxv, 312; ihtd.j Tii, 252; “ Joiirn. Roy. Soc. X.S. 
Wales, xyyiii, 10 . 3 -liel. ; ■“ Kamila roi aiiil other Anstni'uari ’ ]5t-15G. 

^ For partieiilar> ot‘ the u-«e of human onlure and urine mi festive and cere* 
monial occasions, the reader is referred to Capt. J. Gr. Bourke’s valuable book 
on the “ Scatulogic Rites of Ail Nations” (Washington, 1S91). 

® “ Joum. Anthrop. Inst.,” xxv, 312. 



the Jf ii'iiJthu/ i Triots. 


279 


illustrating their rerhal descriptions hy making holes of ihe 
rerprii’ed size in the ground, and placing themselves in pinper 
attitudes. There was a small cleared space close to the camp, 
in which were made a row of doulile holes, varying from 
6 inches to a foot deep, the number of the pair of holes erpialling 
the number of the novices. In these the feet of the novies were 
put to prevent struggling, but the loose earth was not filled in 
around the foot. Each novice sat on the knee of one of the men, 
while another stood behind with one hand over the eyes of the 
novice — the other hand holding his chin to keep the mouth 
open. The principal headmen stood by, giving the necessary 
directions. When all was ready, the man who was to knock 
out the tooth stepped forward, hearing in his hands a mallet 
and a small wooden wedge, which was driven between the 
teeth for the purpose of loosening them, after which the tooth 
was knocked out by placing the wooden chisel against it, and 
then giving it a smart tap with the mallet. The tooth was 
eitlier pulled out of month with the fingers, or was .«pat out, but 
the blood was swallowed. The foot holes were then filled np, 
and the novices were taken back to the camp. 

Tliat night at “Xo. 1 camp,” instead of imitating an animal, 
the performance consists of the Jcvoi'iinji'd pretending to (piavrel 
about something.^ Loud recriminations are indulged in, and the 
men shake their weapons, as if going to engage in immediate 
combat. This is dt.me to intimidate the novices, who are lying 
down, covered over as usual. After peace has apparently been 
restored, a number of the Jcoorlnr/aJ stand round each novice in 
succession. 

On the following morning, a.s usual, about an hour or two 
before daylight, the old men awaken tlie entire camp, wliich is 
again hrokeii up into small .segments, each segment going away 
in different directions, and forming new camps, as before. A.s 
soon as the morning meal has been di.sposed of at the.se scattered 
camps, all the novices are mustered, and ]>ut standing in a row 
on the side of a freshly cleared .space, near Xo. 1 camp. They 
have the rugs over their heads, and their eyes cast down in the 
usual way. About twenty men of the huiriii-jul, painted black 
with charcoal and grease, and liaving small green bushes, and 
bunches of grass fastened in their hair, are sitting in a row in 
the cleared space, ojiposite to the imvieos. Each man has a 
piece of liark, /a/oe/e, in one hand, similar in size and -^liape, 
to the bark used in beating the ground at the ring, the moiuing 
the novices were taken away.- At a given signal frrau tlie 
headmen, who are standing close by, the hiorutjul commence 

' “ Joiirn. Antlirop. Inst.," xst, 310. 

' Loc. cif.j 311. 



230 


E. H. Mathe'WS. — The Burlung of 


hitting the grounci in front of them with the munga. At the 
same time bull-roarers [mudjeegang'),^ were sounded by two men 
who were standing in the clear space behind the koormgal. The 
guardians then raise the novices’ heads, and opening the rugs at 
their faces, tell them to look at the scene before them. A 
number of men no\y step out behind the hooringal, who are 
sitting down beating the ground. Each of these men has a 
boomerang in one hand and a bunch of grass in the other, and 
after swaying their bodies to and fro for a short time, they all 
siuiultaneousiy throw their boomerangs over the heads of the 
novices. As soon as this is done, the guardians lift the blankets 
otf the novices’ heads,- and they are thus freed from being covered 
any more in this way. .Several of the kooringal now rush up in 
front of each novice, with spears and other weapons raised in 
their hands, and threaten them that if they ever reveal what 
they have now been shown, to the women or the uninitiated, they 
will be killed without mercy. Several tails (hirran) are now 
fastened by the guardians to the hair of the head of each novice, 
some hanging down l.)ehind, and others at the sides. The chisel 
and mallet with which the tooth was knocked out are shown at 
this time. 

When these formalities are over, the novices and their 
guardians go out hunting with the kooringal, the boys being 
permitted to join in tlie exploits of the chase, the only restriction 
being that they must not look behind them, or on either side. 
On getting in sight of “ Xo. 1 camp ” when returning late in the 
afternoon, each guardian breaks a large bush which he hands to 
his novice, who holds it with folded arms against the front of 
his body, and inarches on with his head bowed towards liis 
breast. When the novices get into camp, each boy puts his 
bush on the ground, and sits down upon it. The game caught 
iluring the day is cooked, and that which is intended for the 
novices is dressed in the usual manner, bv removing all bone 
and .sinew from it. There is no performance at the camp fire 
that night, and all betake themselves to slumber as early as 
they can. 

Ihtiirn of the loyof — An hour or two before dayliglit next 
morning, the assemblage i.s once more scattered into little 
groups as on previous occasions, and three of the kooringcd 

' '■ Jourr. Antlirop. Inst.,” xxT. 30S. 

= Zoc. ciC. 311. 

In my original paper on the Burbling, Joum. Antbrop. Inst.,” xxv, 296, I 
staU'd that in consequence of the numerous particulars to be taken clown, some 
omissions or errors of detail might have crept in. I now find tliat a few of the 
ceremonies la the hush were not given in their proper sequence. The novices 
were shown the bull-roarer, and were named, during their first term in the bush 
before their return to the ihvrraiinitgit. 



the Wuv.dthiiri Tribes. 


•281 


start a^vav towards tlie place to wliicli the women had removed 
the camp'from the Eurbung. The remainder of the men now- 
pack np everything belonging to them, and after breakfast all 
the little groiixrs again re-unite as usual. A start is then made 
towards tiie women’s camp, hunting as they go, to provide food. 
Early in the afternoon they arrive at a waterhole, where a halt 
is made, and all the men go into the water and wash the black 
paint off their bodies, the novices sitting on the bank as 
spectators, towards whom the men splash water with their 
hands, and then come out of the waterhole. At this halting 
place, the men and hoys have all the hair singed off their bodies, 
and the ends of the hair of their heads is singed to make it shorter. 

Preparations are now made for resuming their journey 
towards the thurranowja camp. The novices are decorated 
with spots of pipe-clay on top of the red ochre with which the 
whole of their Ijodies have been kept painted every day while 
they have been in the bush. The spots or daubs of pipe-clay 
referred to are put on the faces, breasts, and arms of the novices. 
The men are also painted, and both they and the boys wear their 
full dress. 

Having proceeded some distance, another stoppage is made, 
and some of the old men who are related to the novices present 
call each boy out and give him a new name, by which he shall 
be henceforth known among the initiated men of the tribe.^ 
The novice stands with his guardian, and wlien the name is 
announced the men raise a shout. The I'ooringal then again 
caution the neophytes not to reveal rvhat tliey have seen to the 
women or the uninitiated, or they will be punished witli death. 
While they are repeating this caution they hold in their hands 
spears and tomahawks, and step up quite close to the novices in 
a threatening attitude. 

The three men before mentioned who started away before 
daylight went back to the new camp erected by the women. 
On arriving there, and having some conversation with the old 
men who bad remained w-ith the women, they put up a yard 
called thv rruvanga} for the purpose of receiving the novices on 
their return that evening. This yard resembles a semicircle in 
shape, and is Iniilt of forks and bushes laid as a fence, the 
convex end facing in the direction from which the novices are 
exjiected to anive. It is about 40 feet across the open end and 
about .'lO feet in the other direction, the height of the bough 
wall being about 4 or 5 feet. Xear the farther end of this 
partial enclosure some sheets of hark are laid on top of logs 
and bu.shes, forming a platform of sufficient length to provide 
sitting room fur the number of boys wlio are to be operated upon. 

' “ Journ. Anllirop. Inst.," xxt, 310. 



2S2 Pi. H. Mathews. — The Burlunj of 

Mlien tlie t]i"rrairir,i^fi is completed, one of the three men 
hefore iiieiitioiied stairs away to inform the hooeiivjal that all is 
readv. He meets them somewhere on theii march a little while 
before dark, and remains with them. They .su regulate their 
progress that they may reach the appointed place an hour or 
two"^ after dark. When they get within hearing distance, they 
commence to whistle and clap their hands together as they walk 
along through the daikuess, and the women whistle in reply 
and give an occasional shout. 

About dark the mothers of the novices, having their ijodies 
painted and wearing ornaments in tlieir haii-, repaired from the 
general camp to the tla'rrdiranija, accompanied by the tvo old 
men wlio had erected it : the other men who had been in the 
women’s camp during the absence of the boys are also present. 
These people light a tire in the open end of the thurroAcainja, 
and tlie mothers of the boys stand in a row a few paces outside, 
facing the fire. Each woman has beside her a spear sticking in 
the ground, on the upper end of which a tail, or hu, ran, is 
fastened ; the spear is ornamented with stripes of white and red 
paint, and the hurran is coloured with red clay. She is also 
provided with a small quantity of pipe-clay and a boomerang 
painted with red and white stripes.' 

When the procession from the bush get close to the tliurra- 
waruja, a bull-roarer is sounded in the rear, and the novices are 
taken on the men’s shoulders and carried into the enclosure, 
where they are pilaced sitting down on the platform. The 
mother of each novice now steps forward and squirts pipe-clay 
out of her mouth over his face,-" and at the same time taps him 
lightly on the breast with a boomerang which she holds in one 
liand. She then hands a spear, with a tail {Ivrran') fastened 
to one end of it, to the guardian, who gives it to the novice. 
This is the hurra n which was left in the hand of the mother the 
morning her son was taken from her at the ring. The mothers 
then go away and pjroceecl to their own cain’.j. 

Generally speaking, the novices and their guardians stop 
in the thurrausaa^a during the remainder of the night d but 
if it has been fouial necessary to erect it too close to the 
women’s camp, the giiardian.s and boys lemove to snme suicable 
place a little farther off. Most of the single men camp witli 
them, Imt the married men go away to the women’s camp. 


^ Joupu. Antlirop. Ins-t./’ xxr, 309. 

Sometimes, iustead of tLe boomerang, the mothers have a piece of bark, 
harranq harrang, about the same size, slightly scorched in the lire, so that it 
will show the marks of pipeclay, with which it is ornamented. 

^ “ Joum. Anthrop. Inst.,” xxt, 310. 

’ hoc. cit., 310. 



the IViraJthi'ri Trihes. 


283 


Xext day the hoys are taken by their guardian? and such ef 
the hjurLU'jal as have remained with them, a few miles into the 
bush,^ no women being allowed near them, where they gain 
their own living by hunting such animals as have not been 
proliibited as food. On the afternoon of the third or fourth 
day, the novices are painted red all over, with spots of white, 
as on the occasion of their return to the thurraicanga, a7id a 
start is again made towards the women’s camp, which was 
removed to another place on the nntming following the return 
of the hoys. There another semicircular platform has lieen 
erected by the men, in close proximity to the camp. It is 
constructed in a similar way and is about the same size as the 
enclosure previously described, but on this occasion its open 
end faces the direction from which the novices are to approach. 
Around the hack wall of the interior of this enclosure, a plat- 
form was erected by placing pieces of bark on top of logs and 
bushes like the other platform, except that this one is higher. 
On this platform were laid dilly bags belonging to the mothers 
of the novices who were to come in, one bag for each boy. A 
fire was then lighted in front of the semicircular enclosure and 
a number of green luishes were cut by the men, and placed close 
at baud for use presently. 

About an hour or two after dark the contingent from the bush 
make their appearance. The notices, accompanied by the 
guardians walking beside them, now advance towards the fire, a 
number of men marching liehind them, beating boomerangs, 
or other weapons together. The mothers of the hoys are standing 
near tlie tire, and when they see the boys coming forward, they 
throw some of the bushes upon it. The guardians and novices 
then walk ipiite close to the Kre, some of them standing on the 
green bushes, and the smoke ascends up around them all. As 
soon as they are sufficiently smoked, tliey walk into the 
enclosure, and arc comlucted by tlicir guardians to the platform 
and placed sitting down, each beside the dilly bag belonging to 
his own mother. 

In the meantime all the inen present have been smoked in a 
similar manner hy the women at the fire, more green hushes 
being added as rerpured. When the novices, and all llie men who 
have been out vdili them in the bush, Irave been smoked in tliis 
way, the women go into the enclosure.- Each mother then 
advances and taps her son on the shoulder with her open hand, 
at the same time laying some food on top of the dillv ha^T 
beside him, which he takes and puts into the hag. ’ The 
mothers would then go away to their own camp, and the boys 

^ ‘‘ Jonin Aiitlirop. Tiisf.,” sxv, 310. 

' L'jr. ciL, 311-312. 



234 E. H. Matiilws. — The Burlung of the Wlro.dthvri Triles. 


with tliPir "uardians would remain in the enclosure for the 
night. iS'ext day they are brought into the single men’s camp, 
but are not allowed to mix Avitli the women or children. This 
being the last ceremony necessary to admit the novices to 
tlie privileges of probationers/ all the tribes assembled from 
the other districts return to their respective homes. 

Conelu-don . — In this, as well as in other papers on the 
initiation ceremonies of the Australian aborigines, it will be 
observed that I have confined myself as much as possible to 
descrijjtions only. Considerations of space have compelled 
me to omit many particulars which I could have wished to 
include, and to abbreviate others which I sliould have liked 
to describe more in detail ; but it is hoped that the informa- 
tion which I have collected will be found sufficiently full 
for purposes of comparison with similar rites celebrated in 
other parts of Australia. I have in my note books a mass 
of information gathered from the headmen of various tribes, 
with whom I have been in conversation, bearing on the 
reason of many parts of the ceremouie.s, and their meaning, 
which will be clealt with in another paper on a future occasion. 

The fViradthuri community occupied a wide tract of country 
in the interior of Xew South Wales, commencing near the 
Barwon river, and extending thence .southerly to the Murray. 
My two papers on the Burbling will be found to contain, in a 
condensed form, the initiation ceremonies practised throughout 
this va,st area ; there are local differences in the mode of carry- 
ing out the details, but the essential parts of the rites are sub- 
stantially the same. 

Owing to their class and toteinic divisioms, the AVirauthuri 
tiibes are ranked with tho.se forming what has been called the 
“ Kamilaroi Organisation,” for particulars of wliicli the reader 
is referred to my paper on “ The Kamilaroi Class System of the 
Anstralian Ahorigdnes,” published in the “ I’roceedings of the 
Itoyal Oeograidiical Society of Australasia,” Queensland Branch, 
vol. X, pp. 18-34. 

Adjoining the ATiradthnri community on the south-east, and 
extending thence to the I’acific Ocean, are a number of tribes 
spread over tlie coastal districts of Xew South AVales from 
about Twofold Bay to Sydney or Xewcastle. The form of 
initiation ceieniouy practised by these people is known as the 
Ih'ivni. a full account of wliicli is given by me iu a paper con- 
tributed to the Anthropological Society at AVasbington, U.S.A., 
and published in the "American Anthropologist.’- Among a 

^ These neophytes must attenT at least two more Eurbunas before they will 
be entitled to claim the full status of tr.besmi-p. 

- ‘''Am. .Vnthrop., W'asb..” is. 



L. H. Duckworth. — An Account of Mudacjaacar Skulls, etc. 285 


section of these tribes there is also an abbreviated ceremony 
termed the kdrinfjal, used under certain circumstances, which 
has been described by my friend and fellow v-orker, Mr. A. W. 
Howittd and is further iUustratod and explained by me in a 
subser^uent papier.- 


An Account of Skulls fcom M.'-Dagascar in the An.atomical 
Musecii of Cambridge University. By Mb L.aui;ence 
Henry Duckworth, B.A., Fellow of Jesus College. 

[with PL.CTE XXXI.] 

The University collection contains three skulls from Madagascar 
or which one was presented by the Rev. C. P. Cory, the other 
two by the Rev. J. Mb Mathews. The donor of the first writes 
to say that he obtained the specimen himself from the east 
coast, at some risk, for the natives venerate the dead, and is of 
opinion that it belonged to an individual of one of the woolly- 
haired tril.ies, proliably the Betsimisaraka. The other two 
skulls are labelled “Skull of a Betsileo'' and “Skull of a 
Hova ” respectively.''’ 

Ill no case does the mandible accompany the skull ; the 
principal features of the latter are as follows : — 

The first, that of a native of the Betsimisaraka or Betsim- 
sarak tribe, has been embedded in vegetal fie mould, some of 
which still adheres to its base, and which has stained the lione a 
brownish red colour. The zygomatic arches, pterygoid ]jlates, 
and alveolar border have sustained some damage. The absence 
of strongly marked muscular ridges and other features distinc- 
tive of sex causes some hesitation in pronouncing on this point, 
but the balance of evidence appears to indicate a female ; the 
remaining teeth are of large size and Ijeiiig but httle worn 
indicate that the individual was in the prime of life. 

The profile view (norma lateralis) shows slight prognathism; 
the general outline of the face is somewhat flattened, the naso- 
frontal depression being quite shallow, and the forehead 
high ; the contour of the cranial vault is uninterrupted by 
flattening, and forms a continuous curve from iia.-^ion to inion. 
On either side, the frontal and tenqioral bones are separated at 
the pterion by a narrow spur-like projection of the parietal bone. 
The conceptacula cerebelli are large and bulging. 

In norma facialis, narrowness is a notable feature, the orliital 
axes droop slightly externally, the canine fossie are remarkably 

’ “ Journ, Anthrop. Inst./’ siii, 432-439. 

* Ibid., xxT, 316-317, Plate XXTII, Sec. 2. 

^ The Betsiraisaraka tribe occupies the east coast, ihe Betsileo the central 
southern districts. — Sibree. 



286 L. H. Dcckwoeth. — A,i Ar count of Skulls in the 


shallow, and the lower margins of the apertura pyriforuiis. of 
the nose are indistinct. 

Ill norma hasilarLs, the pialate is seen to he wide and deep 
and its anterior foramen of consideralde size. The occipital 
condyles are small, rounded, and everted, and are situated 
towards the anterior part of the lip of a large foramen magnum. 

The specimen lalielled SknU of a Bet&ileo ” is that of an 
adult male. Like tlie preceding it has heen stained ]»y the 
action of vegetahle juices, and is in a fairly good state of 
preseivation, though the zygomatic arches and the internal 
skeleton of the nose have heen somewhat damaged. The sex is 
unmistakaljly indicated by the prominences of the gial lella and 
iniun, as well as by the prognathous upper jaw and the large 
size of the remaiuhig teeth. The cubical capacity is also 
considerable. 

In norma lateralis, the pwognathism appears to be mainly 
sub-uasal, the profile of the face is somewhat flattened and the 
fronto-nasal depression shallow. The curve of the cranial vault 
as in the jueceding specimen is uninterrupted by flattening from 
ophryon to iniou. The sutures, as a whole, are remarkably free 
from synostosis, and there is a wormian (epipteric; ossicle at 
each pterion. 

In norma facialis a .slight degree of scaphocephaly is noticeable, 
and the face is long and narrow with sharp-bordered orbits 
whose a.xes are nearly horizontal. The nasal bones are short 
and flat, the nasal proce.sses of the maxilhe massive, the canine 
fossa; remarkably shallow, and the inferior margins of the 
apertura pyriformis of the nose are replaced by gutters 
(f/ouftii jxs ■■si/iiii/nac). 

In iKjrma basilaris, the width and shallowness of the palate 
with moderate tuhera maxillaria are to he rroted. On the right 
side the fmamina spinosum and ovale are confluent. 

The third specimen is labelled “ Skull of a Hova,” and is in 
good pjreserr ation, though it has been prerfomted in the legion 
of the obelion. The full dentition and the closure of the 


Description of Plate XXXI. 


Fig. 


Fis. 


1. — Profile TiPws (norma lateralis) of- 

2. *— ^omia faeiali? of the same. 


skull of Makua (to the left). 
skuU of Betsmiisaraka. 
skull of nutire of Mobangi (to tlie 
. right). 


Fig. 3. — SkulU of Dyak from Borneo (to left), and Hova from Madagascar in 
nor-iia hiteralis. 

Fi^. 4. — !Norma facialis of the same. 


Tlie -writer indebted to Mr. F. MT. Green, of Jesus College, Cambridge, for 
the above pliotogra|’]is. 






Aixat-^riiiad JIt'sci:m of CamJjruhj' Unirersify. 


2S7 


basilar suture indicate matuiity, and the stout zygomatic 
arches, pronounced glabella, and large teeth indicate the male 
sex of this specimen. It is bleached as though it had lain in 
dry dusty soil, and thus presents the first of a numlier of points 
of difference from the two pirecediug skulls. For this is a short, 
round skull, prognathic to a slight degree only when viewed in 
norma lateralis. In norma facialis, the width of the face 
appears greater tlian in the two preceding cases ; the orbits are 
large and their a.xes droop slightly externally, the canine fosste 
are deep, the nasal bones prominent, the apertiira jyyriformis 
wide and with sharp inferior margins. 

In norma basilari.s, the shortness of this skull is evidenced in 
the arrangement of the structures at its base. The palate is 
wide and deep, the remaining teeth but little worn. Some 
destruction, due to weathering, has occurred near the foramen 
magnum, wluch is of moderate (relative) size and roughly 
diamond-shaped. 

The above notes on the craniological features of the specimens 
may now be supplemented by a few words on the table of 
measurements. 

"With I'l-gai'd to the first specimen, tlie Betsimisaraka, the 
cubic capacity i.s llfiO c.c.; the maximum length is considerable, 
viz., ISti mm. ; the doliehoeejihalic character is clearly shown by 
the breadth index which nearly approaches the vertical inde.x;. 
(71 = breadth index, 70 = vertical index.) 

In the case of the Betsileo skull, the cubic capacity i- some- 
what greater than in the preceding example, being 1480 c.c., 
the lengths almost identical; the cephalic index again denotes 
marked dolichosephaly and equals tiie vertical index (72'4). 

In the third case, the cubic eapactty falls short of tliat of 
either tlic preceding spccimen.s, being only l.dl.j c.c. The 
breadth index denotes the marked brachycephalic character 
and somewhat excee Is the vertical index. A dental index could 
be calculated and the figure (I.jTo) places this skull in the 
mesodnnt grouji. 

It is now possible to institute comparisons between these 
skulls and to attempt to trace re.seiublances between each in 
turn and specimens from other parts of the world. First, it is 
evident fr'Un a Inief survey, that Madagascar can furnish at 
least two types of crania; for the two specimens first descrilied 
forrespoud nearly in general features, and both differ from the 
third. Thus appearances indicate that the Betsimisaraka and 
Betsileo skulls are long and narrow, with narrow and flattened 
faces ; to such general features may be added similarity in the 
shape and disposition of the tympanic ring at the external 
anditoiy meatiis (^lz., downward prolongaticuij ’ the compara— 



2SS L. H. DrCKWOETH. — An Account of Slcidls in the 


tively deep glenoid fossa : the relatively large foramen niagnnm. 
"Whereas the Hova skull is hruad, the face wide, the nose 
prominent, there is hut slight downward prolongation of the 
tympanic ring, and the glenoid fossa is shallow. Some of 
which is reiterated hy the table of measurements, which leads to 
the recognition of similarity between the first two, particularly 
in the following points ; — 


Character. 



Betsimisaraka. 

Betsileo. 

Hova. 

Cubic capacitv . . 



1450 

14S0 

1315 

Hcrizontal cireurnference 



511 

515 

48.1 

Maximum length 



186 

1S5 

16S 

Vlaximum breadth 



132 

111 

13S 

Xasomalar index 



103 '5 

109 -7 

113 5 


while both contrast with the Hova in all respects save the 
breadth. Such facts point to what has already been expressed 
in this Journal and elsewhere, viz. : that among the various 
races now inhabiting ^Madagascar some are distinctly dolicho- 
cephalic, others decidedly brachy cephalic. And, moreover, tliat 
the former type is that of the wilder tribes wltose afiinities 
seem to rank them with the negro races, while the latter class 
is represented by the more civilised Hovas, who are regarded as 
of Malayan origin. 

The evidence for such statements comes from several sources, 
for instance the physical appearance, the language, history, 
legends, cu-toms, and arts, of the respective tril..es, and this 
paper will be concluded by a brief review of the results of the 
study of the first of these more particularly in respect of crani- 
ology. 

The accounts already published of the Betsimisaraka and 
Betsileo triljes are not very numerous. A good bibliography 
up to the year 1885 is given by Professor Max Leclerc in a most 
interesting paper published in that year in the “ Bevue d’Ethiio- 
graphie.” It is therein recognised that a great diversity of 
races is met with in Madagascar. There seems to be no certain 
evidence of the characters of the aboriginal inhabitants. 

The earliest race of which any record is left (the Ya-Zimba) 
has been thouglit to be allied to the Bantu family. It was 
succeeded by various tribes which agree in certain negroid 
characteristics and among which are the Betsimisaraka and 
Betsileo. But here the difficidty arise.s of ascertaining whether 
the features referred to as negroid approximate these tribi;s to 
the African or to the Oceanic negro. 

MM. de Quatrefages and Haniy report (“Crania Ethnica'’) 



289 


Anatunikal JliiS'.i'ni of Car,Jjrid'je L niversity. 

that of the vario-.is tribes some (viz., the Sakalaves and Ant- 
eliianakas) are nearly allied to the Bantu family, whereas 
other.? (such as the Antankares and Betsimisarakas) are more 
decidedly negro than the former. Leclere {loc. cit.) suggests a 
comiiKm origin for these and the Betsileo tribes, and regards 
this original race as African. Herein lie is opposed to such 
writers as Grandidier, Oliver, Sibree, EBis, who regard such an 
origin as “ Oceanic ” : while de Qiiatrefages in a later work^ 
(1889} than the “Crania Etlinica” considers the races of Madagas- 
car as "allied to the Papuans rather than to the negroes of Africa. 
Writing in this .Journal in 1892, Professor Sibree described the 
betsileo as a race darker in colour than the Hova, probably 
descended from Melanesian ancestors or from a mi.xture of dark 
and light Pacific islanders, and supports the statement by 
evidence from the character of certain ornamental carvings.’^ 
Another view is that of ilace-Descartes (quoted- by Leclerc, /or. 
who regards the Betsileo as allied to the Hova race. 

ilM. de (Qiiatrefages and Hamy besides basing their opinion 
a.s to the Papuan affinity of these tribes on considerations of 
language, remark on certain of their cranial characteristics, 
notably hy}isi^teuocephaly and frontal compression, which are 
known to distinguish Papuan skulls. But of the series of 
figures they publish, it appears that in the case of three male 
Betsimisaraka skulls only, do the proportions approach those of 
Melanesian skulls, for in these three the dimensions give to the 
average a marked degree of Inqisistenocephaly and a moderately 
low nasal index. In contradiction ti> such an indication must 
be mentioned the high figure representing the orbital index. 
In the same talle, measurements relating to two female Betsi- 
misaraka skulls shov.- that in these the vertical index is as much 
below the breadth index as it was aliove it in the ca.se of the 
male skulls.-* 

Finally, a skull from ^Madagascar in the Museum of the Eoyal 
Gollege of Surgeons is distinctly platycephalic. So that from 
measurements on actual specimens, but little evidence can be 
iin.iught forward with regard to the Betsimisaraka, and even 
less with regard to the Betsileo skull. 

This being so, the Betsimisaraka and Betsileo skulls in the 
Cambridge IMuseum were compared with other specimens in 
that collection with the following results. That from appear- 
ances no distinct resemblance to the Melanesian skulls can be 
discovered, the chief differences being in respect of size of facial 

' “ Histoire <);oiier.ile ties Eaces Ilumaines." 

* Certain Betsileo designs of earring almost exactlr reproduced in tlio Herver 
islands. 

^ A condition cliaracteristic of female skulls of rarious races. 

VOL. XXVI. 


r 



290 L. H. DrcKworaii. — ,1/' Ai\ui'ut Sh'Ih m tin;. 

skeleton, prognatliism, depth of canine fo?s,e. Xeither can 
leseriihlanees be traced to the Kailir skulls, or to some negro 
skulls from the we^t coast of Afiica. There are, however, two 
African skulls which hear a general resemblance in shape to 
the Betsimisaraka skull. One of these i.s that of a Jlobangi 
native from Central Africa about a thousand miles from the 
mouth of tlie Congsj, the other that of a Tlakua native from 
near Zanzibar. Besides the general aspect and contour, the 
Mobangi skull is not far removed in proportions from the 
Betsimisaraka. The Makua skull is much smaller than either 
and agrees only in minor details of measurement. Bigure.s 
representing some of the chief dimensions of these skulls have 
been arranged in a comparative table, together with figures 
relating to the specimen from Tfadagascar, in the museum of the 
Pioval College of SurgeoiLS. (Fbiwer’s ‘•Catalogue," Xo. 1306.) 

Mo that if one miglit argue from so few examples, the iu- 
clicatioiis aie to regard the attinities of these tribes (despite 
their language) as approximating them to certain African negro 
races, though it is p'.)ssihle that the latter themselves may have 
some connection, as yet unrevealed, with the Oceanic negroes 
(c. Max Leelere, loc. cif.). 

There rciuaiiis to con.iider the Hova skull. Though the date 
of the arrival of the Hovas in Madagascar is iiuccitain, yet 
there seems to be some evidence for placing it in the 7th century 
A.D. Thysical confouiiation, tradition, and hniguage point to 
an origin whicli may be referred to as Indonesian. 

MM. de f)uatrefages and Hamy (“ Crania Ethnica ”) record the 
occurrence in a H(wa skull of a cranial deformity previously met 
with iu the .Malay peninsula. Tliese authors also state that tlie 
Hova skulls resemble certain skulls of the Antankares (one of the 
wild tril.ies of IMadagasear who have mingled with the Hovas), and 
describe an Antankare coffin as very similar to those in use iu 
the Philippine Islands, wliile tlie skull of the contained corjKc 
was brachyceplialie, and of an Indonesian type. The measure- 
ments recorded by these authors as the mean of two male 
specimens, are not closely approached by those of tlie Hova in 
the Cambridge eollectioii, for the latter is of smaller cajiacity 
and more distinctly brachyceplialie than the former. Xo strong 
reseiulilauce can be traced to either the Polynesian specimens 
or to a skull from Manilla in the Cambridge museum. How- 
ever a most striking siinilarit'v is found between the Hova 
skull and that of a Dvak from Xorth Borneo in the same collec- 
tion, and this similarity in tonii and proportion is confiniied by 
the principal measurements and indices which have been 
tabulated side by side, and in almost every instance correspond 
closely, the only notable exception being the iia.sal index, Un 



291 


‘I'trJ Hii! I'J Comhiohji' L dive if ij. 

searching for measurements of other Iiido-Malayan skulls, two 
specimens in the museum of the Eoyal College of Surgeons 
seem to approach in proportions those just nientioiiech and the 
figures relating to these have been aclded to the comparative 
table. Finally the measurements of a skull from the Philippine 
Islands (recorded in the same voliuue of Flower’s “ Catalogue ”) 
present a number of features similar to both the Hova and 
Dyak skulls, and are of increased interest in consideration of 
the statements of MM. de < juatrefages and Hamy in regard to 
the Antankare and Hova tribes of Madaga.scar (r. supva). 

In conclusion, a study of the specimens at Cambridge .sho\is 
that the Hova skull finds its counterpart in one from Borneo, 
and differs widely from the Betsileo and Betsimisaraka skulls ; 
that the two latter agree in such features as distinguish them 
from the Hova, and resemble certain skulls from the African 
continent rather than any Oceanic .specimens.^ 

TABLE I. 

Dli!E.N'SIO>,-3 OF SKV1.LS FP.OM IN' THE AN'AIOIIICAT. ilrSEm, 

C’A>fBRILK.;E UmVERSITY. 


Catalogue Vo. of Skull 

17S3 

17S-» 

17S.5 

Sex 

— 

Hale. 


Approximate A ^0 

. Adult. 

Aged. 

Adult. 


Cubic capacitT 
Maximum length 
Ophrro-iniao lengtli . . 
OphryO'Occipital leiiirth 
Occipito-spinal length 
Occipito-alreolav length 
Maximum breadth .. 
Bi*asterial breadth . , 
Bi-stephanic breadth 
Bi-auricular breadtli. . 
Minimum frontal breadth .. 
External bi-ovbital bre.idtli .. 
Minimum inter-orbital breadth 
Bi-ZTgomatic breadth 
Bi-muiar breadth 
Bi-maxillarv breadth 


I 


14.50 

1-130 1 

1313 

ISO , 

185 1 

3 08 

179 ' 

1 "5 ^ 

3 02 

1S3 i 

1S3 1 

IUn 

379 

192 (?) 1 

170 

187 ! 

2C0(?) I 

17S 

l:« i 

134 

138 

100 , 

110 ; 

109 

109 i 

109 1 

120 

111 

115 i 

117 

94 1 

9S , 

92 

98 

108 ! 

103 

27 

27 1 

29 

113 (?) : 

130 (?) 1 

1.30 

lOS (?) 1 

115 

113 

90 (?) 

luo 

92 


^ Since the foregoing account was written, I have read the important paper 
on Skulls from Madagascar by Prof. Virchow Verhandlungen der Berliner 
Gesellschaft fur Anthropologic ” : Siby ung vom IS Juli, iSD6). Without 
attempting to discuss this paper, I will mention that the measurements there 
given of two Hova skulls approach most nearly those of the Betsileo skull 
described m the present paper. 

u 2 



292 


L. H. Dcck^YOETH. — Ail Account of SI: tills in the 


Tabie I — contitit’eJ. 


Catalogue ^ 0 . of S’jull 

Sex 

Approximate Age 

17S3 

Adult. 

1784 

Hale. 

Aged. 

1783 

Male. 

Adult. 

! 

Juiio-nasal breadth .. .. 

Ot 

i 

103 1 

93 

Ophrvo-alTeolar length .. 

92 

92 

87 

Aasi-alveolar length . . . . . . ■ 

70 

C8 

65 

iBasi-alveolar length ,, 

9.3 

101 (?) 

92 

Basi-nasal leiiixth 

9.3 

101 

95 

Basi-glabellar length 

10.3 (?) 

109 

103 

Basi-bregmatic length 

130 

134 

132 

Basiou to obelion : length . . 

123 

132 

122 

Basion to lambda : length .. . . • 

115 

119 

110 

Basi-iniae length . . . . . . : 

SO 

85 

75 

Baeiou to opisthion length . . , . ‘ 

39 

33 

34 

Breadth of foramen magnum . . ' 

32 

31 

31 

Orbital height . . « . . . i 

30 

33 

33 

Orbital breadth . . . . . 

35 

40 

37 

IN’asal lieight .. 

49 

50 

45 

>‘asal breadth 

2S 

31 

28 

Pahito-maxillary lenath 

49 (?) 

53 

52 

Palato-maxillary breadtii .. 

58 (?) 

65 

65 

Anterior palatine breadtli . . 

2S 

28 

27 

Poaterior palatine breadth . « . . ! 

37 (?) 

42 

41 

Ares: Frontal 

131 

133 

129 

Parietal 

128 

128 

114 

Occipital fo Inioti 

69 

66 

60 

Occipital, hnon to 

50 

50 

46 

Supra-aurioular 

303 

310 

309 

Oblique parietal 

331 

363 

3.39 

•Tugo-nasal arc 

102 

113 

109 

-Horizontal circumference 

511 

515 

483 

Height of choanie 

35 (?) 

? 

30 

Breadth of choame . . 

32 (?) 

3-3 

30 (?) 

Length of tloor of nasal cavitv 

38 (?) 

y 

36 

Least distance between temporal : 

94 (?) 

104 (?) 

124 (?) 

crests. ' , ! 

Weight of skull (without iaw) ' 

415 

533 

418 

Combined length of three molar > 





28 L. 

teeth. ! 

Combined length, molars and pre- 



— 

i 41 L. 

molars. 

Indices: Cephalic 

71 ; 

72-4 

82-1 

"N crtical 

70 

72 4 

1 7S'6 

Alveolar . . . . . . ' 

100 

100 (=) 

97 

Orbital 

85’7 

80'2o 

89-3 

^asal 

57-14 

62 

60 

Palato-maxillarr . . 

P 

122 6 

125 

Facial superior (Broca) 

SO (?) 

70-8 (?) 

66-9 

Facial superior (Kdllinann) 

60-9 (?) 

52-3 (?) 

50 

Stephano-zvgomatic . . 

94-8 (?) 

83-1 (?) 

92-3 

2fa3o*malar ,, 

108-5 

109 7 

1 113-5 

Dental (Flower) . . . . . . ^ 



1 43-15 


CoMPAEisoN or Sktois rnoji Madadasoab with otheb Specimens. 



Hcrcroiu’c to in (lio Musoinii ol' (lio K 0311 I Ccillogc of Surgeons :■ 

No. ] aOt). A skull from tlio N.W. coast of Aladagascar. 

No. 711- V. A skull from -lava. 

No. 744. A skull from ilorneo. 

No. 747. A skull from the Philippine lel.tiuls. 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA AND NEW BOOKS. 


Headers of the Journal are invited to co.iiniunicate any new facts oj 
especial interest which come under their notice. Short abstracts of, or 
extracts from letters will he puhlished at the discretion of the Editor. 
Letters should he marked ‘"Miscellanea” and addressed to The 
Secretary, 3, Hanover Square, IF. 


Aboriginal Goldsmiths’ Work in Colombia. 

The methods in nse bv primitive peoples in working metals are 
always of interest, and I vencure on that ground to call attention 
to an idnstration of the way in which the 
repon.sse gold figures are made, so common- 
ly found in the Republic of Colombia 
(Xew Granada). The figure will explain 
the character design of the small stone 
model in question ; the designs represent 
busts with the radiating feather head-drtss 
that may be called characteristic of the 
ancient Mexican and more southern races ; 
and upon three of the edges of the .stone 
are figures .somewhat like the well-known 
“ Xilometer.” A model similar to this is 
figured by Vicente Restrepo in L^s Chib- 
chas ante.s de la Conquista Bspaiiola ” — 

Bogota, 1895. Atlas, Plate XLI, Fig. 129. 

In the desciiption of the plates it is called 
“ Piedra con figuras realzadas.” and there 
appears to be nothing in the text to explain 
its nse. This I take to be undoubtedly for tbe making of the 
reqjousse figures which are found in rows upon the larger gold 
ornaments of Colombia, as well as in sitisrle figures as pendants for 
necklaces, etc. The small Xilometer-like columns are also for 
necklaces, and the Christy Collection (British Museum) possesses 
several that might almost have been made from this very model. 
Senor Resti’epo s Atlas above referred to contains many illustra- 
tions of the gold ornaments of these types. The length of the 
model is 3^ inches. C. H. Read. 




295 


Jliifh/’Oj^alujtC'.iJ JItH' 'inuiii and ^cu' Boohs. 

Note on a Morion Skull, from Waitangi West, Chatham 
Islands. Collected by Mv. J. W. Williams, presented to 
the British Museum bv Sir A. Wollaston Franks, K.C.B., 
F.R.S. 

The cranium has no lower jaw belonging to it. It is that of a 
powerful male, with well developed mastoid processes and occipital 
ridges, and of a person probably beyond middle age. Most of the 
sutures, especially the coronal and sagittal, are almost obliterated, 
but the lanibdoidal is open, with very complex denticulations. It 
is very heavy and thick. Most of the teeth have been lost during 
life, and those that remain, viz., three incisors, the canines, the 
first premolars and the last molars, are worn down almost to the 
level of the alveolar margin. There is a laige cavity, as of an 
abscess, opening on the surface, over the root of the left canine. 
The forehead is narrow and low, the parietal eminences very 
prominent. The jugular's strongly phauogygous. The orbits 
nearly square. The nasal bones narrow and prominent at their 
lower ends, indicating a fairly high bridge to the nose. The nasal 
spine well developed, hut the margin of the aperture on each side 
of the spine indistinct, the floor of the nasal chamber passing 
insensibly on to the alveolar surface. 

Taken altogether it is an extremely characteristic Moriori 
cranium, as the principal indices siiow when compared with 
those of seven .specimens contained in the museum of the Royal 
College of Surgeons,^ 


ilillimeti-es. 


■ Average indices of 
I seven Moriori, skulls 
I 111 Museum Rojal 
College of Surgeons. 


Length 

193 



Breadth 

152 



Height 

140 



Length index . . 

— 

73-8 

77'9 

Height index . . 

— 

72-5 

75'0 

Basi-nasal length 

100 



Basi-alveolar length . , 

106 



Gnathic index 

— 

100 

991 

Nasal height 

5 1 



Nasal width . . 

25 



Nasal index .. 

— 

46 3 

431 

Orbital width, . 

40 



Orbital height 

36 



Orbital index . . 

— 

90-0 

931 


lYith the cranium were two lower jaws, neither of which belongs 
to the same individual. One is that of a person equally or still 
more aged, the stumps of only three teeth remaining in place, the 

* See “ Catalogue ” (1S79) by W. H. Flower, 





296 


jLatlii'opologiccd MLscctlancii ciiul JSciv -Book’s. 


two incisors and tlie middle molar of tlie left side, and all worn 
down to the level of the alveolar margin. 

In the other, that of a mnch younger person, the whole of th.o 
teeth were in place at the time of death, although more than half 
of them have now fallen out of their sockets. Those that remain 
alreadv show considerable abrasion of the grinding surface, so that 
it is clear that the food of these people must have contained a large 
proportion of sand or gritty material, which alone can cause such 
extensive wear. A similar condition of teeth is generally seen in 
the Indians of British Columbia, who subsist very largely upon 
salmon dried in the air, and often exposed to sandstorms in the 
proce.'s. It was also common among the ancient Egyptians. 

W. H. Flower. 

“ Signaletie Instructions, including the theory and practice 
of Anthropometrical Identification.” By Alphonse 
Bertillon. Translated from the latest French edition under 
the supervision of Major R. IT. McClaughry, late General 
Superintendent of Police of Chicago. The Werner Company, 
Chicago, Xew York and London. 1896. 

The recent adoption of the Bertillon system of identification by 
the Scotland Yard authorities has been the means of arousing a 
certain amount of public interest. Those who are not familiar 
with the work of the French anthropometrist, have now an oppor- 
tunity of acquainting themselves with all the details of the system, 
by consulting the translation issued by the Werner Company of 
Chicago and Xew York. 

The work is conveniently divided into three parts : — An Intro- 
duction, Instructions for Signalments, and an Appendix. 

The general reader will find most that will interest him in the 
somewhat lengthy Introduction. It practically amounts to a dis- 
sertation on the whole subject, the remaining portions of the book 
being devoted to purely technical details. 

An individu.al may he recognised by a variety of means. The 
measurements of certain definite parts of his body may be taken 
and recorded. A description of his peraonal appearance, including 
details regarding the colour of his eyes, skin, and hair, together 
with an account of the form of such features as the nose, mouth, 
and ear, &c., m.ay he carefully prepared, and finally’ a statement 
including a description of all peculiar marks may be drawn up. 
These three kinds of signalment are carefully’ considered in the 
present work, and their I'espective merits discussed. It is with the 
first of the group that Bertillon’s name is more immediately 
associated, though one cannot read the book through witliout 
realizing the great amount of time and labour the author has 
expended on the descriptive signalment, and the signalment by 
peculiar marks. 

Of the three method.?, the most satisfactory, from a scientific 
point of view, is that which is based on accurate measurements. 
Not only is there more certainty in the results obtained, but the 



297 


AntJirOjpuIogk-al Miscellanea and JSew Books. 

system lerds itself to a comparatively simple metliod of classifica- 
tion, so convenient to vrork, that there is no difScnlty in finding, in 
a few minutes, the duplicate of a card in a cabinet containing say 
40,000 anthropometrical signalments. This system entails the 
employment of skilled assistants throughout the country, and it is 
in the instruction of these that the voluminous details given by 
M, Bertillou will he of immense service. 

The measurements adopted by M. Bertillou are those of height, 
reach, trunk, head length, head width, bizygomatic width, length 
of left foot, left medius, left forearm, diameter of right ear, and 
length of left ear. The Scotland Yard authorities, acting on the 
advice of Dr. Garson, have discarded some of these as of compara- 
tively little importance, and have thus reduced both the number of 
measurements necessary, and the time taken up in recording them. 
The exceptions are the measurements of the reach, the trunk, and 
the diameters of the ears. It is noteworthy, too, that we have 
adopted the measurement of the face width (bizygomatic width) 
which M. Bertillon at first omitted, but which he now includes in 
the later instructions. 

So far the system adopted has proved of the greatest value, 
not only in detecting the old offender, but in protecting the 
innocent, and if at first the margin of error appears somewhat 
small, experience in working has proved that remarkab'e accuracy 
of results is attained. M. Bertillon is careful to point oat almost 
all possible sources of error, though it is curious that -whilst he 
lays stress on the fact that the subject should be prevented from 
contracting his eyebrows when the measurement of the head length 
is taken, yet he fails to note that when the head width is beino- 
measured the subject should be asked to open his mouth, so as to 
ensure that the measurement may not be increased by a greater 
thickness of the temporal muscles, due to their contraction daring 
firm closure of the jaws. 

But whilst the anthropometric signalment fulfils nearly all the 
conditions necessary for its applications to the adult, it is open to 
this serious objection, that it is practically useless before the ao-e 
of 20. This is extremely unfortunate, as it is precisely at this 
period of life that we can hope to reclaim the juvenile offender, 
and do onr best to prevent him becoming an habitual criminal. 

In such cases the police must have recourse to the descriptive 
signalment, and this brings us to the second means of identifica- 
tion a.s classified by Bertillon. On this subject the author has 
brought to bear his vast practical experience, as well as his know- 
ledge of scientific methods, with the result that the section on 
this subject is most exact and elaborate. Such a signalment may 
be either a written statement, or its place, where poWible, may be 
taken by a photograph. The latter is certainly more convenient 
and valuable. It is in the preparation of this written descriptive 
signalment that we feel most inclined to differ from the author. 
It seems to us that in his attempts to be accurate, and iu his 
endeavours to reduce all descriptions to a common system, he has 



298 


J-ftSLi'Ihitn'fj iyivj liooly. 

eried on the side of undue elaboration. In order to render tl;e 
system workable, it Las been necessary to Lave recourse to 
abbreviations, and these unhappily for us are based on the French 
words, of which they are the contracted forms, as, for instance 
lel. for elevated (Fr. releve), and ab. for depressed (Fr. abaisset, 
Before such a system can ever come into < peration it would be 
necessary to liave some sort of international agreement as to the 
terms employed, and even then it would be cumbrous, besides 
involving the expenditure of much time and labour in acquiring a 
knowledge of it. One cannot help thinking that there is a great 
difference between its existence on paper as an itleal sebeme. and 
its practice by officers, of whose duty it only forms a part. Xone 
the less M. Bertillon has done good service in emphasizing the 
importance of certain physical characters in this connexion. Thus 
he lays gu’eat stress on the value of the ear as a means of identifica- 
tion. a fact which he further confirms at p. 176. by a table wherein 
is given a list of abbreviations (to the nmuber of 63), of the 
■■ nioiphological qualification.? of each part of the ear.” 

ilost, if not all the difficulties of a descriptive signalment are 
overcome by the use of phetogtaphy. As these photographs are 
jiasted on the cards of the antbropometrical signalments they are 
neces.=arily classified along with them. In this way the photograph 
of a suspect can easily be compared with that taken previously if 
lie has been already measured. Accordingly the photoarraphs are 
much more valuable now than in the days when a detective had 
to spend ranch of Iris time turning over tlie pages of the official 
albums on the off chance of recognising the portrait as that of a 
convicted criminal. In order that the photographs may be readily 
compared, it is necessary that they should he taken under the same 
couclitious of light, and in similar po.ses. Aelequate instruction is 
given in regard to theise matters in an appendix dealing with 
Judicial Photography, but unfortunately the nature of the lens 
emploj'ed is not mentioned. This is a matter of some practical 
importance. The longer the foens of the lens the less the 
perspective of the object is forced when the I'eduction is to the 
same scale, and hence there is less distortion than when a lens of 
shorter focus and wider angle is used. This has always been urged 
as a reason why photography should not be employed in delineat- 
ing skulls. But provided a satisfactory lens is made use of, these 
objections are reduced to a minimum. In the present instance the 
reasons are perhaps not so obvious, but it would have been well to 
have drawn attention to the fact, the more so as it would have 
lead to more uniformity in the results. 

The third form of signalment is that relating to peculiar marks. 
The author insists on accuracy of description, pointing out that 
‘•the signaletic power of a peculiar mark increases in geometrical 
progression, according fo the precision with which it has been 
described.” Here again contractions are largely made use of, as 
the space on the signaletic card is hut small, thus : — 

Cic. r. of Ib. e. ml. 2'’ f. M. g; p. 



299 


Aktiti ojK'h'i/ical Mi^cdhiiun and Kt if Bools. 

means — cioatrns rectilinear, of a dimension of one centimetre, 
oblique external, on middle of second phalanx of middle finger, 
left side, posterior face. 

We have the author’s authority for stating that “ an apprentice- 
ship of some days is snf&cient for the attainment of a maximum of 
speed” in writing and reading the contracted forms. We hesitate 
to say it, hut it must he that French prison officials are much 
quieter in the “ uptake,” as the Scotch say, than our own police. 

It is satisfactory to know that 1^1. Bertillon has recognized the 
value of finger prints as a means of identification ; in this respect 
therefore the systems of the French and English police are in 
agreement. 

The book is indispensable to every one interested in the question 
of personal identity. The author’s knowledge is such that his 
methods are based on practice, and his warnings are the outcome 
of experience. We like the first part of the book best, viz., 
the Introduction and that part which refers to the anthropometrical 
signalment. As we have said, we I'egard that part which deals 
with the descriptive signalment as less successful, not that the 
author has taken less pains with it ; in fact, it seems to ns that, in 
his anxiety to provide a scientific method of description, he has so 
overburdened his subject with details as to render it nnwoikable, 
except under very extraordinary conditions. 

A passing word of praise in regard to the illustrations, and the 
album. The latter will well repay inspection, and will give rise to 
doubts in the minds of many whether craniometiy has much 
advanced our knowledge of the appearance of the head and face in 
the living. A. T. 

The Natives of Sarawak and British North Borneo. By H. 

Ling Roth. With a preface by Andrew Lang. 2 vols. Svo. 

Over 550 illustrations. Loudoa : Truslove and Hanson. 1896 

Mr. Ling Roth has done a great service to Anthropology in 
compiling this very valuable compeudium of the ethnography 
of the Northern tribes of Borneo. As in his well-known little 
book on ‘‘ The Aborigines of Tasmania,” be bas brought together 
the results of wide reading, and both works are indispensable as 
books of reference for those who desire to make themselves 
acquainted with the islands in question ; but the next publication 
bas the advantage of dealing with people.s yet alive, and about 
whom we may yet hope to learn a good deal more. Such hooks as 
this save the student an immense deal of weary labour in hunting 
up authorities. Their advantage to antlirnpological science is also 
very great, for not only do they diffuse iuf jrmaiion, and may even 
awaken a permanent interest in anthropology ; but by bnugincr 
together scattered facts, the latter tend to mutually e!Qcidate"’one 
another, and conversely there is a demonstration of the gaps in 
the information, and of imperfections in the interpretations which 
haply may be supplemented before it is too late. How manv 



300 


Anthropological Miscellanea and New Boohs. 

examples there are where this is now impossible — of Tasmania, 
for example, one may almost describe our information as being 
composed of gaps. 

This work is based on the notes of the late Hugh Brooke Low, 
but free use has been made of the descriptions of a large number 
of travellers, and in all eases precise references are given, which 
enable the reader to verify the transcriptions. The book deals 
with the physical and mental characters and distribution of the 
various tribes of Sarawak and Xorth British Borneo, their birth, 
marriage, and funeral customs, their ‘ religion, legends, and 
festivals, the medicine men and women, and the native diseases. 
The daily life is fully considered including its duties, such as 
agriculture, hunting and fishing, and its pleasures, such as the 
employment of narcotics. The houses are described, and the 
implements and weapons, as well as the domestic arts of weaving, 
dyeing, painting and tattooing. Government and trade, slaveiy 
and other aspects of social life, are detailed, and also the anti- 
social habits of head-hunting and poisoning. The vocabularies 
fill 160 pages of the Appendix, but the more important structure 
of the languages is practically totally ignored ; and there is also 
added a translation of the very excellent observations made by 
Dr. Schwaner. 

Most of the aspects of native life are dealt with as fully as the 
existing materials permit, and so we can gain a very complete 
idea of the appearance, life, arts, and crafts, actions and beliefs 
of these interesting people. It is certainly a matter of regret that 
the account of the craniology of the natives is so extremely 
meagre. The index is full, and the items are arranged alpha- 
betically within a comparatively small number of groups, such as 
agriculture, character, music, war, etc. The book is profusely 
illustrated mainly with clever sketches of objects in various 
museums, but suitable illustrations have been freely borrowed 
from other sources. In looking through the illustrations of 
decorated objects, one is impressed with the idea that a careful 
study of the decorative art on the spot would well repay any 
traveller ; investigations carried on in museums are at best very 
unsatisfactory. 

Altogether both the author and the publishers are to be con- 
gratulated on the “ get-up ” of the book. 

A. C. H. 

The Whence and the Whither of Man: a brief History of 
his Origin and Development through conformity to Environ- 
ment. By J. M. Tyler, Professor of Biology, Amherst 
College. W. Blackwood and Sons. 1896. 8vo. 312 pp. 

This is not an anthropological book in the limited sense of the 
term, but one which is calculated to awaken an interest in many 
of the broader problems of anthropclogy in religiously minded 
people. The book is the embodiment of a course of “ Morse 



A,itJii‘Oj)i-ioji'-,(l Miscdlaiica nnd Xetc Bools. ^fil 

Lectures ” delivet'eil in tlio Union Theological Seminarv ; this 
trust Avas founded for lectures which have to do with “ The rela- 
tions of the Bible to any of the sciences.’’ So far as we have 
noticed, Professor Tyler's science is sound, and he deals with the 
phvsical structure of man. his evolution, and the development of 
individual and social morality in a hroad-minded manner. The 
tone of the book i.s deeply religious in the best sense of the term. 


Recent Books on Oceanic Philology. 

1. “A Dictionary of the Language of Mota, Sugar Loaf 
Island, Banks’ Islands.” By Rev. R. H. Codrington. D.D., 
late of the iJlelaitesian Mission, and Ven. J. Palmer, B.U.. 
Archdeacon of Southern Melanesia. With a short Grammar 
and Index. Society for Promoting Chri.stiau Knowledge, 
London, 1S9G. 8vo. pp. xxiii and ol'2. 

This work is au important addition to the literature of the 
Melanesian Island-;, and will bo found of interest to the anthropo- 
logist as well ns to the philologist. Though the language is oiily 
that of a small population of less than one thousand, it has been 
used for the past thirty years in oral teaching and as the medium 
of intercommunication between natives of widely distant islands, 
and has thus obtained, as the liioina franca of the Melanesian 
Mission, an importance which makes it, as a representative 
Melanesian language, second only to that of Fiji. The dictionary 
is prefaced by a succinct grammar of the language, and by some 
remarks on the general relationship of the Mota to other Oceanic 
languages. These point to the fact of very many agreements in 
the voea’oularies from widely separated islands, and are jnstiQed by 
placing ill the vocabulary after the ilota words, the cognates in the 
principal Indonesian, iMicroiiesian and Polynesian tongues, which 
serve as illustrations of the general connection of the Mota lan- 
guage with the otheis. These illustnatlons are found among all 
classes of words, and in words of common and rare use. The 
statement sometimes made that correspondences between tbo 
Malayan languages and tho.se of the B.islern Islands are limited to 
a few modern words could easily be refuted by this dictioiiarv 
alone. Take, fur example, the following Mota words ; 

Wirita, octopus; nra. crayfish; v.Io, maggot ; tuiio, ground; 

path; tn.ii, roast; faui (tangi), weep; mate, die; 
which arc found throughout the Malayan Archipelago, 
and even appear in ilalagasy as horitn. orana, olitra, 
taiih', lahiiia. toiia, tamj and 

Compare also the same words in the following notices of New 
Guinea, and in Samoan. The.>e cannot be regarded as modem 
word.;, and yet the list might be considerably extenuod so as to 
form a large vccabnlary. 

■ In these llalagasv words o is pronounced as e, and jia, fra, in oraea 
olitra, lalaiia are separable sulfixes. 



302 


AitiJuv^ioloyiajI MiS' iJh' itL" n vl X'Aij 

In some cases the Mota dictionary gives information of 
ethnographical interest, by describinar a native operation in 
detail. As an illustration I take the entry under the word alia. 
■which appears thus ; — 

AA'u, canoe; alia pa/pasau, with plank sides. Fiji, warm; 
ilao, iralia : Sam. va’a : Bouru, wrujn, waa ; Ambovna, 
halia ; Ponape, »-a. A canoe is hewn out, v:e fara o aka ; 
ill shaping the hull, turiai, the tree trunk is cut with 
sicleway strokes, ari, on the out.side, and hollowed inside 
with straight strokes, pari. The two ends are shaped 
alike, the hollow part under the bows or stern being the 
qanqancn ; the upper part of each end being decked with 
a taqnca. Upon the hull is built, pa-.an, the bulwarks of 
jtlank ; irav, 'me iara man o lakae, we icaswas hie man o 
nurnurinhi. shaped (in old times) with the shell adze 
and bored at the edge with a shell ; these liole.s in the 
planks and trunk are mateivas, and we v>l o irav ape turiai 
hiun 0 qaun ape mateivas. a lashing of .sinnet passes 
through them. A staging of rods of hibiscus covers the 
two ends upon the bulwarks, we las o qeaqea varu. At 
the two extremities of the hull double horns, tikataso, of 
gasur, are made fast, to work the steering paddle, faricose, 
in, which is tied in place wdth the ya-ta-wose. The 
outrigger, sania, is connected with the canoe by three 
yokes, iwatia, the ends of which are made fast, vil, to 
pegs, of nira wood, the pisvaloto, driven into the out.ngger. 
The free ends of the two outer yokes, iwatia mot, pass 
under the stages, qeaqea, and are made fast to the 
bulwarks, we vil ape irav ; the free end of the middle 
yoke is not tied fast, ive risa gap. The outrigger is 
thought always to be on the left of the canoe, the 
open side of which is the yatae ; the outrigger has it.s 
corresponding yatae. 

The sail, epa, is carried by two spare; the longer the mast, 
tiirgae, the shorter the boom, pane; these altogether 
make the gapan. The forked butt, here turgae, of the 
mast rests on the middle yoke, iwatia, is not made fast, 
we pute gap gate rot ; the forked butt of the boom, liere 
pane, lies in the same way on the here tnrga°. The mast 
is supported by shrouds, tal, made fast to the middle of 
the mast; three brought down to the end of the middle 
iwatia, carried under and wound to the pisvafoto, and 
three to the base of each outer iwatia mot ; the.se are the 
tan-yae. The boom i.s set to the open side of the canoe, 
o pane te risa ape gatae, leaning over: it is supported by 
two tnl-pane, each fastened to the iwatia mot where it 
projects from the irav. 

The sail, epa, is made of mats woven by women, me van mun 
gavine gae, and sewn together by men with a needle of 
tree fern wood, or a ray’s sting, and hibiscus fibre, o 



303 


Anthro^iolojiijd Miii Jluiiia and Sew Bools. 

meeeata ice susur mini o garnru, mun o qafia, o qasai 
opena. si o togo var. It is laced, rifata, to the furgae 
and jxine -svitli a small line; all is hoisted together, ive 
tape o epa. and when not in use is folded with the lines 
attached. The leech of the sail above is the qaf-mata- 
lava. the belly the toqai, the part in the angle below the 
keretovoi. 

Similar descriptions are given of house building, thatching, etc. 

2. “ Grammar and Vocabulary of Language spoken by 
Motu Tribe (New Guinea).” By Sev. W. G. Lawes, 
D.D., F.R.Ct S.. with introduction by the Rev. George Pratt. 
Third and enlarged edition. Sydney, 1893. 8vo. pp. xiv 
and 1-57. 

This very useful book shows a considerable increase in know- 
ledge of the principal language of British Js’ew Guinea since tho 
publication of the second edition in 1888. The grammar has been 
almost entirely rewritten and the vocabulary extended by the 
addition of more than a thousand words. An introduction by 
Rev. George Pratt points out many agreement.s with the E.vstern 
Polynesian languages, but contains no reference whatever to the 
exceedingly close relationship between Motu and the ilelanesian 
languages, which is strikingly evident in both the grammar and 
vocabulary. One short example may be eiven in illustration. 
The eight words given in the preceding notice as common to 
^Malagasy and the Mota of Banks’ Islands appear also in this New 
Guinea Vocabulary " ith the same meanings as : urita, ura, nloido, 
tano, darn, iiinu, tdi, and mate. 

In the Polynesian language of Samoa, the same words are ; fe'e. 
ula, ilo, ‘‘ele'ele. ala, tunn, tagi {tangi). mate. 

Mr. Lawe.s gives at the end of his book a comparative vocabu- 
lary of seven Now Guinea dialects. In the.se the names Keapara 
and Galoina arc adoplod for the dialects formerly called Kerepunu 
and Aroma. 

A.n Introduction to the History of Religion. By F. R. Jevons, 
M.A., Litl.D. Alethuen and Co., 181115. 413 pasres. 8vo. 

Index. 

This is an important contribution to the literature of the subject, 
approaching it as it does from a new point of view 

Stan in a; from the position that wherever ho gets it. the savage 
has a conception of the supernatural. Dr. Jevons co'.nbats the view 
that magic e.\isti.d first and th.it religion v. as snhsequeidl v developed 
out of it. .Sympathetic Abigic ” is primitive science, not primi- 
tive religion. 

Tl'.e origin of religion is rather to he found in the desire of man 
to establi.sli frieudly relations with some of the supernatural 
powers which surround him. This desire seemed practicable 
because he was alre.idy in the habit ot communicating with the 



304 


Anthrojwloi/iail Miscdlo aca and Xtv: L'ool-.-<. 


t-pirits of tlie dcjiartccl, which, whether they possesseJ super- 
nataral attributes or not. were at any rate spirit^. Thus some 
o-hosts at any rate were friendly to the living and loved by them. 
Religion is not based on dread or fear. 

If it is argued that the corpse-taboo implies such universal 
dread of the ghost, the answer is of another nature altogether. 
The source of taboo is the conviction that ” some things there are 
which must absolutely — and not on grounds of experience — be 
avoided. It is the e.ategorieal imperative, ' Thou shalt not,’ 
which is the first form assumed by the sense of social and moral 
obligation.” This is one of the points at which many anthropo- 
logists will join issue with Dr. Jevons. Mr. Andrew Lang 
has already done so. (Letter to the “■ Spectator,” Jan. 23rd, 
1896.) 

The first supernatural alliances were primarily with animals, 
and secondly with trees and plants, human clans allying them- 
selves publiclv with animal and plant clans. This is Totemism. 
Attempts made by individuals to make private alliances, without 
the knowledge of the community, with unattached supernatural 
power.s, were regarded as illicit and resented as unfair. Such 
alliances are the basis of Fetishism, which far from being the 
origin of leligiou is a degeneration of it. Dr. Jevons brings out 
very clearly what may be called the economic aspects of Totemism. 
It had a wide intluence in the domestication of plants and animals. 
The breeding of cattle and the cultivation of cereals made man 
more dependent than heretofore on the forces of nature, and led 
him to worship them with the same ritual as that employed iu 
the worship of his totems. Hence Xature-worship which, like 
Fetishism, is secondary not primary. 

The formation of larger political units rendered possible by 
agriculture involved a fu.sion of cults leading either to Syncretism 
or Polytheism. In either case the resulting modifications in the 
tribal worship required explanation. The explanation took the 
form of myth, which is therefore not the invention of the priest. 

The book concludes with an account of various doctrines of 
the future life, and of the origin of ^Monotheism, which is not 
developed out of Polytheism as is so often held. Whatever opinion 
may be formed as to the validity of some of Dr. Jevons’ premi.ses, 
and some at least will be called in question, there can be no two 
opinions as to the lucidity with which a long and intricate argument 
is rendered and exposed. Evidence of learning and scholarship is 
to be found in every chapter, and the author’s wide knowledge of 
classical antiquity has enabled him everywhere to illusti'ate savage 
custom by parallels from the Greek and Roman world, thus ever 
keeping before the mind of the reader that continuity of human 
thought which has been so unwillingly recognised by classical 
scholars of a certain school. 

Xot the least important quality of this valuable hook is its 
suggestiveness; it cannot fail to invite fruitful criticism and to 
stimulate to further research. 



A.iLf]i I'opulo’jiciil MiboJldiLici and ^€v: oOo 

The Myths of the New World: A treati.'e on the .symbolism 
and mythology of the Red Race of America. By Daniel 
G. Brinton, LL.D., etc, etc. 3rd e.litiou. revised, 1896. 
Piiiladelphia. 31.“) pp. 8vo. 

A new edition of Dr. Brinton’s work fir.st published in 1868. 
containing twelve chantei-.s, with. Inde.x of Authorities and Index 
of .SiiUjects The chapters are arranged under the following 
headings : — General Consider.itions of the Red Race; The Idea of 
God ; The .Sacred Xuniber. its origin .and applications; The .Symbols 
of the Bird and the Serpent : The iilyths of Water, Fire, and the 
Thunderstorm : The Supreme Gods of the Red Race ; Tiie IMyths 
of the Creation, Deluge, the Epochs of X.iture. and the Last Da\' . 
The Origin of Alan : The .Soul and its Destiny ; The Native 
Priesthood: The [nfliience of the Native Religions on the Moral 
and Social Life of the Race. 

The Buddhist Praying-Wheel; Ac illecium of uiutevial bearing 
upon the symbolism of the wheel and circular movements in 
Custom and Religious ritual. By William Simpson. 8vo. 
iJIacmiliau. 1896. 3i.i3 pp. 

This bo )k is what its title iniplies. a collection of material : its 
aim is sugge.s'ion radier than formulated theory. But the 
industry and observation of tl.e author have i'e.salted in a highly 
interesting eullection of facts gathered in various eountrie.s au'l 
daring from various epochs. The reader will gain some ide i of 
the scope of the work from the titles of some of the nineteen 
chapters of which it is composed : — The Wheel among the Lamas ; 
Tile Wheel in Indian Buddhism; The Wlmel in the Brahmanic 
.''V.item ; The Solar Grigiii ; The Swastika ; J<ipuu ; In Kgvpt ; 
Among the Semites: The Givek .System; In the Chrl>t'a'i 
Chiirclies ; Among the G, ml - Trutons and the Celts; The Wheel 
of Fortune; The Wheel as an Amulet : The Wheel and Thunder 
There are numerous illustrat'.jns. and the book is provided with a 
geiieial index, and an inele.» to book letereuces. 


British Association, Liverpool, 1896. 

Ihv litlatioii Ilf Pal" viltkic Man to tho (Parial L’/iiirh. 

Ui:i'i'i!T of the Committee, consisting of Sir .Tohn Evans (Chair- 
man), Miss E Mor..,c, Mr Cl-mcnt R id (Secretary). Mr. 
E. P. Ridley, and iMr. H. N. Kiilley. appointcel To ascertain 
bv exca’Vition at Hoxne the relations of the P;ila'olithic 
L'epcsits to the Boulder Clay, and to the deposits with 
Arctic and Temperate plants. (Drawn up by the Secretary.) 
This Committee was appointed " with the objoct of clearimg np 
crM'taiu doubtful points a- to the relation of P.ihtolithic man to the 
Glacial Epoch, " at the Ipswiili meeting- of the Biiti.-h Association 
in 189.5. Ho-xnc wa.s .selected as the best place lor the investiga- 
VUL. -X.W! X 



30G 


I'opoloj u:ul AltScH'i.iWU ii.iid JJcuL'^. 


tioii because " Pa’a?jlitliic implements and various fos&iliferons 
strata were there known to occar in close proximity to undisturbed 
Bouiuer Clay, and it was probable that a single excavation would 
be isufficient to decide several of the disputed questions.” 

Hoxue is on tlie nr.rthern border of Suti’olk, in the midst of the 
great sheet of boulder elay, often stvled "The Chalkv Boulder 
Clay. ’ whieh covers so large a propiortioii of the surface of Xoifolk, 
Suffolk and Essex. It is now a century since John Erere recorded 
the occurrence of paheedithic implements there. Among more 
recent explorers have been Sir John Evans, the late Sir Joseph 
Prestwich, Thomas Beit. Mr. H. B. Woodward, ilr, Clement Beid 
and Mr. H, A Ridlev. 

The Ccmmlttee bestan work at Hoxne on March 23rd, 1890, 
iMr. Clement Reid remaining in charge throuchout the investiga- 
tion. A pit was sunk in the brickyard north of Fairstead Farm 
to a depth of 20 feet, and fi-om tire bottom of the pit a borehole 
was made 22 teet lower-, when tlie Glacial Sands, underlyiircr the 
boulder clay, were reached. It was then thoucrht de.sirabie to 
ntake a charn ot boi-iiigs right across the o'd basin eontaining the 
brickoarth and otLer depo.stts .seen in tlie bi'ickyanh and extending 
for some distance outstde its area. Sitflic ent evidence tr as thus 
obtained to enatle the explorers to draw atr uoouiate section across 
the ancient silted up clrairnel. aird to ascertain its relations to the 
rleposit.s belonging to the (.ilacutl Period. 

The trral pit and boring in the Hoxtre brickyard was found to 
he nearly in the centre of the clranrrel. and though the other borings 
trequeirtly showed boulder clay, in notre of them was there any 
other deposit not seen in Hoxue brickyard, where the explorers 
found, beginning with the uppermost beds : — 

A. Brickearth with freshwatoi' she-lls. wood and palteolithic 

implements. 

B. Gravel and carbonaceous loam (no implements nt thi.s 

■spot). 

C. Black loam with leaves of Arctic plants. 

D. Lignite w ith Temperate plants. 

E. Lacusti-iiie clay with Temperate jilaiits. 

G. 8and full of water. 

The sand (Gj is that of the Glacial Period which underlies the 
boulder clay. In other borings netirer the sides of the old channel, 
boulder clay was found at the bottom, and that deposit forms the 
surface bed outside the old channel. 

Great care was taken to jirevent the .ssil remains found in 
beds ( and D from being mixed. .Samples from them were 
minutely examined and washed for fossils in London bv Mr. 
Clement Reid and Miss E, Morse. 

the Committee point out that the history of these palosolithic 
depo.sits seems to have been as follows. Long after the di.-ap]iear- 
ance of the ice which deposited the boulder clav. the land was 
somewhat higher tlian at pre.sent, so that the old channel in which 



A/ifhrojwIo^ical JlivcUaniu and Xeir Bool-^. 


307 


these palaeolithic deposits are now found could be excavated to a 
depth slightly greater than that of the Waveney, as it is at 
present. Then gradual subsidence turned tbi.s channel into a 
shallow freshwater lake. After the lake became silted up its site 
became overgrottn by a Temperate flora. Then laeustiine condi- 
tions again prevailed, and a colder climate, lesulting in the 
deposition of Bed C. Then followed the floods during which the 
paleolithic beds B and A were depo.sited. "The palreolithic 
deposits at Hoxne are therefore” (IMr. Reid remarks') “not only 
later than the late.st boulder clay of Rust Anglia. 1 ut are separated 
from it by two climatic waves, with correspoi.dnig changes of the 
flora. Such sweeping changes cannot have been local ; tliey must 
have affected wide areas.” 

The Report is well illustrated by a map and sections. The 
most important of the sections is along the line of the borings, 
twenty in number, the position of each btii'g maiked. and the old 
silted-up channel accurately slii. wn in it> relations with the 
boulder clay. There is a full list of the fossil remains found, 
and details of each cf the twenty boieholes are given in an 
appendix. It is a most fortunate thing that the management of 
the exploration should have been given to a geolt gist with the 
great experience in field geology, especially that of the Eastem 
Counties, of Mr. Clement Reid. And the Committee, and Mr. 
Reid more e.specially. are to l.e heartily congiutulated both on 
the thoroughly satisfactoiy way in which their weak has been 
done, and on the clear and decided conc•ln^ions to be derived from 
it, T. V. Hi.'I.mes, 


It may be worth mentioning, in connection with this question 
of the relation of the pala'olithic di po.-its of the Eastern Counties 
to the chalky Boukler Clay, that the present writei' in a paper 
read before the Cleological Society in I^f'd ( “ Q. J.G.S..’’ vol. xlviii, 
p. 365), pointed out that a cntiiiig on the new railway between 
Upminster and Romford .showed the Boulder CTiiy to be older than 
the palceolitbic deposits of the Thames \ alley. — T. V. H. 


The American Anthropologist, 'i'ol. ix. Xos. lo^n. (Xo. 
10.) “The BCiean Ceremony ot Aew South M ales” tilliistrateel), 
by R. H. AJathews; "Pueblo Irdian Clans” (with Fable), by 
R. "W. Hodge. (Xo. 11.) “ Paeilie Coast Shells, from Prehistoric 

Tiisayan Pueblos ” (illustrated), by J. W. Fewkes ; " The Rskin,o 
and their Written Laiiguaoe." by Chas. Hulloek ; " The Beginning 
of Marriage,'’ by W. J. 3[cGee. 


The American Antiquarian. Vol. xviii, Xo. 6. ‘ Manufac- 
ture of Abraded Stone Imjdemtnts ’’ (with Plate), by W. H. 
Holmes ; iMounts and Cists at St. Paul," by T. H. Lewis (illus- 
trated) ; ■' A Remarkable D.scovery of an ancient city in Mexico ” ; 
“ Rrom two Republics, iMexici)’'; “ Garden Beds in Michitran 
ilodeled,’’ by H. R. Oaks; "King David's stone Stairway,” by 



•jOS Antki‘t.‘iiuJo[)[pijl iliU’iUniuu and J\tu' 

'F F. Wriuht : •’ Svr'I.li]?, in the Carved Rochs on iMosunito 
Fliore.’’ by Win. D. FarriUgton (illu.strated) ; ‘■When Patlatches 
are Observed," by James l)euns ; "A Choctaw Cemetery in Ala- 
bama," by H. S. iJab ert; "Ancient and iJodern Paeblo Architec- 
ture," by Steven D. Peet (dlustrated) ; " Migrations ot the Indian 
Tribes of the Atlantic Coast,” by Dr. C. Thomas. 

The Educational Revie'W. Vol. x. Xo. 5. Contains among 
other a; tides — "The Proper Study of ilankiiid ” (with illnstra- 
tion-), lieiiig a review of Prof. A. H. Keane’s " Ethnology." in the 
Cuiubridov Gcotri-aphical S'crics. 



T H Ji J 0 U IL X A L 


OF TllK 


A N T H R () P O L O G I C A L I N S r IT U F K 


OF 


CIJEAT BltlTAIX AXD 11:ELANI». 


Jaxl’aky 12th, 1807. 

E. \y. Bk.aceoOK, Esq., F.S.A., Pi‘i:.rUkat, in the Chair. 

Tlie Minutes of the last Meeting were read and signed. 

The following communications were read : — 

“On the Transition from the use of Copper to tliat of 
Bronze.” By Dr. J. H. Ol.vdstoxe, F.R.S., and “ On tlie 
Bronze of S.E. Europe.” By -J. L. Myres, M.A , F.S.A. 

Discussion was carried on by Messrs. Evaxs, Gowla .d, 
Myres, Baltour. and Eedler. 


(hi TRAXSITIOX J'ruiil the I'-tC o/ CoRRER fo that of l)lii.,.'E. 
By Dr. J. H. Gladstoxe, F.E.S. 

The followuig paper is substantially a communication made to 
the Anthropological Section of the British Association at Li , f- 
pool last September. The materials for it weie founded u]'nn 
the analyses of copper and bronae implements kindly givee o 
me by Prof. Flinders Petrie, Mr. Bliss, Mr. Rylands, Mr. Artl i'.:- 
Evans, Mr. -Joseph Olford, and Mr. Spiller, and of minerals -.nd 
V-OE. XXVI. ‘ Y 



;J10 Dk. J. H. Gladstone. — On the Transition 

ancient copper slags furnislied by Prof. Bonney ; also tlie 
analyses made by Dr. Percy, M. Bertlielot, Prof. Eoberts- 
Aiisten and otber.s. Most of niy results have been published 
in the “ Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology.” 

The first metal employed by man to any extent was gold, 
which occurs native in many regions of the eartli ; but this 
■seems to have been used mainly for ornamental purposes. 
Copper also sometimes occurs native, and many of its ores 
are easily reduced. There is no wonder, therefore, that it wa.s 
employed in very early times, and in different countries, for the 
manufacture of implements designed for domestic, military, and 
other purposes. 

We know from existing inscriptions that the copper and 
turquoise mines of the Sinaitic peninsula were taken possession 
of by Seneferu, a king who reigned as far back as the fourth 
dynasty, at the very beginning of authentic Egyptian history ; 
and that these mines were worked to about the end of the 
nineteenth dynasty. Tools made of copper have been found 
in Meduin and Gizeh, dating from the fourth to the sixth 
dynasty d a curious object called Pepi’s sceptre, now in the 
British Museum, and analysed by Berthelot, dates from the 
sixth dynasty',- A basketful of tools found by Flinders Petrie 
at Kahun, and dating from the twelfth dynasty, probably about 
B.c. 2500, were found also to be made of copper.® 

Ill Mesopotamia a very ancient knife made of nearly pure 
copper, without tin, has been found at Tell el Sifr. 

M. de Sarzec found at Tello, in Chaldiea, a votive figure, in 
the foundations of an edifice more ancient than constructions 
which are estimated at forty centuries B.c. Berthelot found it 
to be of copper deeply encrusted with oxide, and without any 
tin.* 

As to Asia Minor, the lowest treasures found at Hissarlik. 
the supposed seat of Troy-, comprise pins and nails made of 
copper, according to Prof. Eoberts-Austen’s analysis.® 

More instructive still is the great mound of Tell-el-Hesy- in 
Palestine, believed to be Lachish. In the lowest part of this 
mound were discovered adzes, knives, etc., of copper belonging 
to the time when it was an Amorite city, before its conquest by- 
the Israelites under Joshua, and therefore in all probaliility- 
before the nineteenth dy-nasty- of Egypt, say- about 1500 b.c.® 

* '• Proc. Biblical Archaeologj,” February, 1892. 

" “ Anriales cle Chxmie et Phvsique.” Serie 12, p. 1-0. 

' Proc. Biblical Arcliseologv,” March, 1500. 

^ “ Comptes Rendiis,” Januarj 30, 1893. 

^ ‘'Ilios.” Schliemann. 

“Proc. Biblical Archseology,” February, 1891. 



from the Use of Coppa' to that of Bronze. 


311 


The “ new race ” whose remains were discovered hv Flinders 
Petrie at Xagada, in Eg}’pt, and who are supposed to be 
Lybians who invaded Egypt from tlie West, had a few me- 
tallic implements. Tlie dagger, celt, and harpoon were ex- 
amined, which proved to be of copper and not bronze. 

But tools made of copper are not so hard as the Hint imple- 
ments whicli they gradually displaced ; and we can well under- 
stand the desire of the ancient peoples to harden their tools and 
thus render them more serviceable. This seems to have been 
efiected in three different ways. 

1st. By admixture of the red oxide of copper, called by 
chemists cuprous oxide, or perhaps more correctly by the pro- 
duction of that substance in quantity during the smelting of 
the ore. Thus at Lachish some of the tools of the Ainorite 
epoch were found to be excessively hard and red ; an adze 
which was analysed giving about 24 per cent, of cuprous oxide. 
A similar adze obtained from a reliable source in Egypt, and 
ascribed to the eleventh dynasty, is found to be almost identical 
in its character and composUion. The little harpoon from 
Xagada, and some other early implements also contain a con- 
siderable amount of cuprous oxide, but it is quite possible that 
this was rather accidental than intentional. That it was inten- 
tional in the case of the two adzes mentioned above, appears to 
me clear, not only from tiie large quantity of the oxide, but 
from the fact that other early copper or bronze implements 
which have Ijeen similarly buried in the soil are not found to 
contain any large proportion of it. We can readily imagine 
that early workers in copper might obtain a metal rich in 
suboxide through prolonged fusion in the air, as indeed is the 
case in what is now called ‘‘dry copper,” a very hard and 
brittle substance. A very few per cent, of the suboxide of 
copper is sufficient to prevent copper being malleable : and it is 
quite certain that the specimens described above could not 
have been hammered into form. We know, however, that the 
ancient plan of preparing metal implements was by casting in 
moulds. 

2nd. The presence of ar.senic or antimony. The copper tools 
discovered at Kahun were found on analysis to contain arsenic ; 
n one instance, that of a large hatchet, to the extent of o OO 
per cent. Dr. Percy found 2-29 per cent, in a knife which was 
certainly anteiior to the time of Baineses II. iM. BertheloP 
has just described the composition of certain tools fountl in the 
deserted copper mines of the Sinaitic peninsula, and which mav 
therefore be supposed to have been left behind when the mines 
were al:andoned. One of these, a broken pick, was '• fortement 
^ ■' Comptes Eendus,” August, 1896. 

Y 2 



De. J. H. Gladsto>:e. — O/i the Transitwn 


:U2 

arsL'nicak'.’’ Two needles and a pin found in the old necropolis 
of Tonkh, between Memphis and Abydos, contained some ar- 
uenic. M. Berthelot tlid not find arsenic in any of the Sinaitic 
minerals that he examined, and concludes that it must liave 
been introduced into the metal on purpose. In other eases it 
may be quite possible that it existed in the ores employed. 
A very small percentage would be sutticient to give a harder 
metal than itsual, and therefore a more serviceable one. Tracas 
of antimony were also fouml in the ancient tools both of Egypt 
and Palestine. 

ord. The presence of a small quantity of tin. This metal, to 
the extent of 2T6 per cent., was found in a chisel from Kahun, 
and smaller quantities of it in the hatcliet and knife. The 
mirror handle contained a decided amount of tin. Dr. Percy’s 
knife, and the needles frcjm Tonkh, also contained a trace. A 
knife dagger found in Cyprus, borings from which were given 
me by Mr. Arthur Evans, contained tin to an extent not exceed- 
ing one per cent. It is notable that the implements helonging 
to the Lyhian race did not contain any amount of this metal. 
There can be little doubt that the admixture of tin was made 
for the purpose of hardening the copper, like the arsenic and 
antimony, and small as it is it would have an appreciable effect 
That so little was employed in these very early days was pro- 
bably due to its costliness. It is possible also that it existed 
originally in small quantities in some copper ores ; whicli would 
in consequence be much souglit after as producing a good hard 
metal. We can well understand that, e.specially in early times, 
tin would only be intentionally added to the copper where 
strength was required ; thus at Mykenai tiie kettles and othei- 
domestic utensils were made simply of copper, while the swords, 
and sucli articles <If lu.ee as a vase were made of good bronze. 
Similarly the nuraghs of Sai'diuia contain bronze statuettes on 
copper pedestals, ami bronze swords with copper mountings.' 
Of course we are still in the habit of using copper or brass 
(alloy of copper and zinc) in place of bronze (copper 
and tin) where the clieaper metal will equally suit our 
purpose. 

The great advantage of mixing tin with cojiper was gradually 
perceived, and the favourite metal for tools became that alloy 
which is known as bronze. Tills is very evident at Kahun. 
Among the implements foiuid there, occur needles. Some of 
these were of copper, ami therefore easily bent, and ill adapted 
to the purpose required ; but others were found to contain a 
considerable amount of tin, and had the necessary hardness. 


' Perrat and Chipiez, ’‘Historte de PArt di.ns I’Antip ite,’* ixl. -t. 



313 


from the Use of CojJper to that of Bron'.e. 

These are amon™ the earliest examples of hronze.‘ A fragment 
of a graving tool from the Sinaitic mines was found to be very 
hard; and Berthelot describes it as a bronze very poor in tin 
and free from arsenic. The tools found by Mr. I’etrie at Gurob, 
which date from the eighteenth dynasty, about 1200 B.C., also 
exhibit this transition. Two liatchets, the one small and the 
other large, gave respectively G OT and 7'29 per cent, of tin. 
Similar weak bronze was found in the third city of Hissarlik, 
in battleaxes and other implements. Analyses made by 
Damour, by Lyons, and bv Eoberts-Austen yielded from 3'84 
to 8‘64 per cent. In that portion of the mound of Lachish 
which belonged to the Israelitish period were found a quantity 
of nails and other articles of bronze, which were very much 
corroded, but gave a considerable percentage of tin. Birt, in fact, 
bronze containing about 9 to 10 per cent, of tin, much the same 
as our modern gunmetal, is to be found pretty well all over the 
civilised world, after, say, B.c. 1000, and was used for all kiud.s of 
purposes, until it iu its turn was gradually displaced by iron 
and brass. The word tran.slated “ brass ” in the Bible, may in 
some, of the earliest records be applied to copper implements, 
but generally speaking it doubtless means “ bronze ” ; this was 
used for the furniture and ornaments of the tabernacle, for 
armour and arms, for fetters, and for city gates ; and there were 
even bows of bronze.* 

When strength was not required, as in the case of statuettes, 
the bronze employed was much weaker in tin, but contained in 
its place lead, wliich was of course cheaper, and gave a move 
fusible alloy. Thus Meccant found in the bed of the Orontes 
some Hittite bronze figures of very archaic design, which 
contained 3'9 per cent, of lead and oidy ;k4 of tin. A bronze 
image found at Bubastis’ wliich I examined contained a fair 
amount of lead and a little tin : its date must be previous to 
B.C. 352, as the town was destroyed in that year, 

M'e have no evidence in what form the tin was lirought into 
the Levant ; but tliat the Egyptian.s were acquainted with it in 
the metallic condition is proved by a finger ring of that metal 
which was found liy Dr. Petrie at Gurob, dating "from the latter- 
part of the eighteenth dyna.sty.’ My attempt to find tin in the 
minerals and slag.s from the Sinaitic poninsida which were given 
me by Professor Bonuey, gave a negative resirlt. 

' A far earlier example, if it be genuine, is a rod of bronze wliicli Mr. Petrie 
obtained from a niastaba at Meniim. of the fourth dynasty, and Mhirh contaiii >4 
about the ordinary amount of tin of the later period. “'Proc. Biblual Archa*- 
oIogT,” February, 1S92. 

- Revised Version. 2 Samuel xxii. 35, Job ii, 21. 

“ Proc. Biblical Arclueologv/’ ifjrch, 1890. 

■* IlLihun,” p 19. 



314 


De. J. H. Gladstone. — On the Transition 


Our knowledge of early copper implements is still very 
meagre. Those of which the date is approximately known, 
and which have been analysed, are very few in number. Still 
I venture to think it is fail ly established that the early civilized 
nations around the Mediterranean formed tools and weapons of 
copper in place of the wood and stone previously employed by 
them or their savage ancestors : that they found certain methods 
of treating the ores produced a red metal which was harder than 
that usually obtained, and that certain kinds of ores also furnished 
a stronger copper. l\hthout understanding the cause of this, they 
would naturally adojjt such plans as experience showed to be best, 
and would probably try admixture of other substances. Gradu- 
ally they found that the addition of a certain black ore, or of 
tlie metal derived from it, produced an excellent result : and as 
the demand for bronze increased the trade in tin increased also. 
There must have been a large traffic in themetcds, or perhaps in 
the imirlements themselves — the similarity in the shape of the 
tools in different countries rather favours the latter supposition. 
Thus nation after nation gradually passed from the use of copper 
to that of bronze. 

Appendi.x. 

This apponcli.x is intended to give a fuller account of the 
analyses of the implements mentioned in the paper, with one 
or two additions. It is classified by countries, and, as htr as 
possible, the different specimens from the same country are 
arranged in chronological order. I have not included any 
analysis of a specimen of copper or bronze that is not believed 
to be of earlier date than b.c. 1000. Except where the authority 
for the analysis is given, it is to le undei stood as having been 
made in my own laboratory. 

Egypt. Tharjada. The Libyans : .see text, p. 311. 

Oizeli. I’yramid of Clieops. AValter Flight. 

Dagger handle. 


Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . 99' Sa 

Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 'dS 


Mediim. See p. MO, and note, p. 313. 


Adze Xo. 1. 

Adze ^o. 2. 

Bronze rod. 

Copper 

bulk 

bulk 

S9'8 

Arsenic 

•38 



Antimony 

Iron 

trace 

trace 

trace 

Sulphur 




Tin . . 

none 

none 

9T 


frow tJie Use of Copjper to that oj Bionze. 


315 


“ rqns Sceptre.” Copper, without any tin or zinc, but con- 
taining a possible trace of lead. Berthelot. 

Kaliun. See pp. 310 and 312. 



1 HateLet. 

1 

Round 

chisel. 

1 Min'or 

I handle. 

Needle. 

Copper 

Arsenic 

Tin 

Antimony 

Iron . . 

93-26 

390 

•32 

•16 

•21 

96-33 

•36 

216 

j 95-0 

f 1 more than 
\ ' trace 

! - 

hulk 

trace 

100 

trace 

Knife under Statue of Raineses II, p. 

311. Percy. 


Copper 

Arsenic 



•• 

.. 9712 

2-29 


Tin . . 

Iron . . 



.. -21 (or possibly gold). 

•43 

Theles. Knife 
LIII, 83. 

mentioned 

by I)r. 

Budge. '•' Archa'ologia,” 

Copper . . 

. . . ♦ 

. . . » 

, , , , 

940 

Tin 


. . * . 

. . 

5 9 

Iron 

Guroh. See p. 

O 1 o 

olo. 



•1 


Small hatcliet. Large hatcliet. 


Copper 

Tm . . 

Arsenic 
Antimony . . 
Iron.. 

. . . . ; 89-59 

. . j 6 67 

.. ..; 

. . . , 1 trace 

..| '54 

i 

1 

! 

9O-00 

7 29 
22 
trace 


Siiiaitir Mines. 

See p. 312. Berthelot. 




Broten pick, j 

Graver. 


Needle. 

Copper 

. . . bulk j 

bulk 


bulk 

Tin 


little 


none 

Arsenic 

. . . ; much j 

none 


little 


Necropolis of Tonch. See p. 312. Berthelot. 

Two needles and pin of copper with a little tin and arsenic. 
CH.A.LU.L.V. Tello. See p. 310. Berthelot. 



;#lo Du. .1, H. CJladstoxe . — On (lo Tnimitivn 

To*i\ e Hifurt"*. 

Copper .. .. .. -- .. .. .. 77‘7 

Water . . . - . . . . . . . . . . 3 9 

OxTgeii . . . . . . . . . . . . . C'l 

Chlorine.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 1‘1 

Silica . . . . . . . . . . , . 3'9 

Traces of ?ul[«Uur, arsenic, and lead, together with carbonate (>f lin.e, 
ahimina. &c. 

TcU-cl-Sifr. See p. 310. 

Knife. 

Copper . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 o 

Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ■" 

Sulpliur . . . . . . . . . . . . "2 

Tin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . none 

Gold . . . . . . . . . ■ . . . . doubtful 

India. G-vngcria. Asiatic Society of Bengal. May, 1870. 
Hatehets. Pure copper. Percy. 

OE0NTE.S. See text, p. 313. 

P.A.LF.STINE. Tell-cl-H'-si/. Sec pp. .310 iind 313. 

Ainorite period. 




.Adze. 

Knife. 

Copper 


1 

949 

97’0 

OsTgeu 


27 

some 

Lend 


•ds 1 

trace 

Iron. . 


77 ; 

To 

Tin . . 


. . doubtful 1 

none 

Antimonv .. 


1 

»» 1 

trace 


Draelito period. 


Copper . . 

Tin 

Lead 

Uypuus. Cono'rc..i 
Walter Flight. 

d'Aiitl 

iro[)iilogif. 

St'ickliolm, 

C3 4 

i 'o 

none 

1871. It ;i4t! 

1 

1 

1 

Knife. 

• Lance head. 

! Lance head. 

Dagun'r l>lade. 

Copper ,1 , . 

97 22 

9S 39 

i 99 47 

8^ 77 

Tin 

trat e 

none 

! nt)nc 

8-50 

T»’on 

1-32 

72 

j -as 

•47 

Lead . . 

•07 

none 

! none 

1*50 

Arsenic 

131 

trace 

! trace 


Gold 

■27 

*30 

1 none 



^ ickel . . 

none 

'15 

1 -08 

trace 

Cobah . . 

— 


1 — 

*30 




jr'iiii tlo' Use of Copper to thuJ or Bioir.-’. 317 


Knife dap'tjei'. See text, p. 312. 
Hissaelik. See p. 310. 


Liitr.p City. llobei'fc-Aii'-ieii. 



i 

' Gilced knife 
blade. 

1 

1 

Xecdle or pin. ^ 

Xeedle or pin. 

Copper 

Tin .. 

Iron . . 

Sulpliur 


97 1 

none 

97 83 
•21 
■90 

9S'2a 

trace 

'75 

•13 

Copper 

S'leoHil City. 
Third City. 

Of the same character. 
Battle axes. Damour. 

ft.VSO 

90 67 

Tin 


•• 

3'8 1 

8-64 

Coppor 

Battle a.xes. liohcrts-Austeii. 
0.V41 

93-80 

Tin 


• • 

4 39 

0*70 

Coppor 

City. 

Battle axe. 

1 taiiiour. 

93-.3-2 

Till 





7 S9 

MVKEXAr. 

See text, p. 

312. Dr. B 

C'Vey. 







Kettle. 

8 word. 

Copper 




98 47 

8G-3G 

Tin .. 




•(0 

13 06 

Lead 




•16 

■11 

Iron.. 




•03 

■17 

Nickel 




•19 

■15 

Arsenic 




•83 

none 


■vvitli traces of bismutli, silver, 
and cobalt. 


Sardixia. See text, p. 312. 


r.S. — Siiiee tile above was read at the Society F.ertlielot has 
presented to the Fieneli Academy (“L’omptes IJeiidns” of Feb. 
1.3; an important conunnnicatiou on other metallic objects 
found at Tcllo. ( )ne is a colossal lance of red metal, much 
altered; the tilings consist of copper without any jiereeptible 
tin, lead, zinc, arsenic or antimony. Another is an adze of the 
same comiiosition. A third hs a curved hatchet or adze of hard 
jnetal ; it is of copper, without tin, lead or zinc, but with traces 





318 De. J. H. Gladstone. — On the Transition 

of arsenic and phosphorus, to which M. Berthelot attributes its 
liardness. 

]Mr. Gowland considered Dr. ( Jladstone’s paper to be a very 
valuable contriluttioii to the early history of copper and bronze. 
Yet he thou^^ht that the evidence which had been adduced, 
although of considerable weight, was hardly sutticient to justify 
us in stating absolutely that a copper age preceded a bronze age 
in every country. The material of which the figliting weapons 
of a race was made was perhaps the most important factor in 
determining the character of an “ age,’’ yet in the paper we find 
no weapon of copjicr of earlier date than the knives of Tell-el- 
Hesy, whilst a hatchet and knife of the Kahun “ find ” (probably 
one thousand years earlier) both contained tin. Then of other 
objects a rod of bronze from Medum is as old as any object of 
copper. 

The small proportion of tin in siuue of the early objects may 
be due, as suggested, to the scarcity and conserpient costliness 
of the metal ; on the other hand, the alloy may have been the 
direct result of smelting an o.vidized copper ore containing tin 
ore (cassiteiite). Tiiere are several examples at the present day 
of the production cf alloys by smelting compound ores, as for 
instance in Hida, Japan, where an alloy of copper containing 
10 per cent., and more of lead is obtained from a mixed ore of 
cupper and lead ; and in the Malay Peninsula, where au ore on 
smelting yields pewter (an alloy of tin and lead). 

That copper was allowed to oxidize during melting with the 
intention of hardening it, is a point on which he differed from 
Dr. Gladstone, becau.se tliere i.s a more natural explauatiou of 
the occurrence of excess of cuprous oxide. Besides, copper is 
not much hardened by its ]>resence not nearly so mucli as by 
simply hammering the ordinary metal. He had found that lU 
per cent, and Hampe 18 per cent., had not much hardening effect. 

In all primitive furnaces — and he had had considerable ex- 
perience with such ill Japan — the copper obtained always con- 
tained ail excess of cuprous oxide, and it i.s only when tlie metal 
contains an excess that it can be cast in a “ closed ’’ mould such 
as that recpiired fur a celt. 

For these reasons excess of the oxide is found in all such 
castings. 

He agreed with Dr. Gladstone that the arsenic which had 
been found in , some copper implements was certainly not due 
to its intentional addition lent to the smelting of arsenical ores 
of copper, just as in the present day the copper from the South 
of Spain contains large quantities of arsenic. 

Eespecting the absence of arsenic and tin from the ores of 



319 


from the Use of Copper to that of Bronze. 

the Sinaitic Peninsula examined he thought that Dr. Gladstone 
would agree with him that the specimens analysed are yet too 
few in number to enable us to say definitely that these metals 
do not exist in that rather extensive mineral district. He 
desired further to point out how very necessary it was to exer- 
cise the greatest caution in drawing conclusions from a few 
analyses only, respecting the manner in which any ancient alloys 
had been made and the intentions of their makers. He had 
already cited examples of the direct production of alloys from 
ores, and would now adduce two cases of extreme variations in 
the composition of alloys due to the primitive processes employed 
in their manufacture. 

In the old Korean mint where coins consisting of copper, lead, 
till and a little zinc were being cast by very rude methods when 
he visited it, he had found that some coins contained 4'88 per 
cent., and others only O'Oo per cent., tin. 

In one issue of old Japanese copper-lead-tin coins the average 
proportion of copper was 77’3 per cent., but when single coins 
were analysed it ranged from 69‘8 to 86'8 per cent. He thought 
the paper was a most valuable one. although on one or two points 
his views differed somewhat from Dr. Gladstone’s. 

Mr. Myres said that many of the early implements, though 
cast in an open mould, were certainly hammered to increase 
their density. Also that both in Cyprus frequently, and 
among the Libyan tombs at Ballas-Xaciada, daggers, axes, 
and other offensive weapons, as well as domestic utensils aucl 
ornaments, were found of pure copper. 

Mr. H. Balfour asked ; — Is there any evidence in Europe 
of a stage in the early development of the metal age, at which 
raw copper v'as fashioned into implements by hammering and 
grinding alone, without being smelted ? This stage is admir- 
ably represented in X. America, where nearly pure native 
copper was found in abundance on the shores of Lake Superior, 
and elsewhere, and was skilfully fashioned into implements by 
the natives without any smelting process, the metal being 
treated as though it were a kind of plastic stone by a people 
just emerging from their stone age. If we are to establish a 
continuity from the stone to the metal ages, some such stage 
seems to be necessary, as otherwise the jump from the ordinary 
methods applied to working stone into shape to the treatment 
of metals by smelting, is so wide a one that the continuity 
seems to break down. If evidence of this continuity is not 
forthcoming in Europe, whither must we look to find the traces 
of this important transitional period ? 



320 


E. H. Mathews. — Th . K > Cj ) an'a 


Dr. Gladstone thanked the audience for the cordial manner 
in which they had received his communication. There had 
no doubt been criticisms, a.s well a.s the addition of several 
interesting facts ; but he did not think that any statement of 
his had been impugned, except when Mr. Gowland denied that 
the small quantity of cuprou.s oxide would make copper hard. 
This had been stated on the authority of Dr. Percy. There 
was no doubt that the adze found at Tell-el-Hesy, which was 
very rich in red oxide, was very hard indeed. Mr. Myres’ 
observations on the hammering of celts which had been cast in 
a mould would warrant the addition of hammering as another 
means by which tlie ancients sought to harden their copper 
tools. 

He did not think that the fact of no transitinii period between 
the use of stone and that of bronze being found in Japan and 
some other countries was any argument against the theory he 
supported. Some nations must necessarily be first in the dis- 
covery of the value of copper, and in the art of liardening it by 
tin ; and when bronze tools became common, and the science of 
navigation advanced, they would naturally be carried as mer- 
chandize to other nations that had not yet advanced beyond 
the use of stone implements. Thus it is not likely that speci- 
mens of an intermediate stage would be found there. It 
appeared to him tliat the theory which e.xplained the largest 
number of facts was that the ancient nations about the eastern 
part of the Mediterranean, Egypt, Chaldan, Syria, Cyprus, 
Greece, Sardinia, did pass through a transitional period of the 
use of copper implements before the invention of bronze. 

JVith reference to Mr. Itudler’s request for the details of 
analyses. Dr. Gladstone was cpiite willing to add the figures, so 
far as he can, in an appendix. 


The Keecaera Ceremony of Initi.vtion. By It. H. Mathews, 
LS., Corres. Memb. Anthrop. Inst, of Great Britain. 

[with putc xx-xii.] 

The tribes whose initiation ceremonies are treated of in this 
paper occupied a tract of country on the eastern coast of Xew 
South M ales, extending from about Newcastle almost to the 
Macleay Itiver, comprising approximately the counties of 
Macquarie, Hawes, Gloucester, and the eastern half of the 
county of Durham. Several different dialects were spoken 
by the tribes who occupied the districts referred to, iiicliidiug 
the M atthungk, Molo, Birrapee, B.ihree, Kutthuck, Minyowa, 



Ceremo/iy of hiitiation. 


321 


Carapath, Goreenggai, and some others. Although this is one 
of the first portions of the colony settled upon by the English 
people, nothing has liitherto been done to obtain a conipre- 
liensive account of the initiation ceremonies of the nati\’e tribes 
who were originally spread over it. 

The disappearance of the aborigines before the white race 
has been so rapid that unless steps be taken without delay to 
collect authentic records of tlieir customs, it will soon become 
impossible to obtain any relialjle inforination respecting them. 
The object of the present paper is to furnish a detailed descrip- 
tion of the ceremonies of initiation as they were formerly 
carried out, and are still practised by a few remnants of the 
tribes within the districts mentioned. The information con- 
tained in the following pages is entirely new, and is now 
pulilished for the first tune. 

The Main Camp and Keqw.rra Ground . — The last Keejxirm 
lield on the Manning liiver took place in the winter of 1889, 
on a part of the Australian Agricultural Company’s Grant of 
464,640 acres, in the county of Gloucester, New tiouth Wales. 
The site chosen for the general encampment was a short dis- 
tance from the right liank of Stony Creek, a small stream which 
flovs north-easterly into the Planning Eiver. This Keeparra 
grounil is about three-(pinrters of a ndle up Stony Creek, from 
the crossing-place over that creek of the public road from 
Tinonee to George Town. This road passes through the north- 
eastern corner of the Grant above mentioned, and crosses the 
Manning Eiver about 30 chains above the confluence there- 
with of Charity Creek, which flows in on the iiortliern side 
of the river. 

The Kacharuo, or public ting, was 130 yards 8. 50’ E. from 
the right bank of Stony Creek on some level, tliickly wooded 
country. The tribes who attended tlie ceremony camped around 
this ring, each trii>e occupying the side nearest tlieir own 
districts. Water for camp use, was obtained from the creek 
referred to, and there were good hunting grounds all antund. 

The kackaroo consisted of an oval space 28 feet in the longest 
diameter by 23 feet across, bounded by a raised earthen embank- 
iipent or wall, which was formerly about a foot high — the base 
of the wall being about 18 inches througli. In one side of this 
embankment an opening, 3 feet wide, was left, from which a 
narrow pathway, liuppaiuj, led away through the forest in a 
direction bearing S. 40*’ W. for a distance of 370 yards to 
another and larger oval enclosure, called the yooaanibang (excre- 
ment place). This space was 31 feet by 26 feet, and vas 
enclosed by an earihein wall similar to the one near the camp, 
and the path entered it through an opening left in its wall in 



322 


E. H. Mathews . — The Keeparm 


the same wav. The longest diameter of both these ovals was in 
the direction of the pathway connecting them, and the embank- 
ment was continued a few feet outwai’d.s along each side of the 
pathway in both cases. In the middle of the second, or larger, 
enclosed space was a heap of earth about 4 feet in diameter 
at the base, and IS inches high, on top of which a fire had been 
kept burning. Plate, XXXI I, Fig.s. 1 and 2, 

There were no figures of men, animals, or other devices, 
formed l)y heaping up the loose earth, or by cutting an outline 
in the .surface of the soil, contiguous to the path connecting the 
ovals, similar to tho.se seen on the Bora and Burliung grounds 
of the Kamilaroi and Wiradthuri tribes, whose initiation cere- 
monies are described by me elsewhere.^ 

A numl.ier of trees were maiked around the goonamhmifj, 
some of them bemg ju.st out.side the embankment, and others 
nearlv two chains distant from it. The devices upon them 
con.^isted of the curious marking called dharrooh or dhnrroong 
by the natives, and were cut upon the liark only. The trees 
selected were grey gum and spotted gum, the bark of which 
are smooth and soft, and well suited for the purpose. The 
dluu'roong e.xtended from near the butts of the trees to an 
altitude retrying from G feet to 22 feet up the bole or trunk. 
Most of the trees were marked all roimd the trunk, but some 
were ornamented onl>- on the side facing the goonambang. 

On an iron hark tree, the only one of that species marked on 
this Keeparra ground, was the representation of an iguana 
(Fig. 9), 4 feet 2 indies long, and 9 indies acro.ss the widest 
part of the body — the legs being about 5 inches in length, and 
were without claws. The head is turned to the left, as if the 
animal were looking aliout. Tlii.s drawing was outlined in the 
bark by means of a nick cut with a tomahawk. 

There were twenty other marked trees, all grey and spotted 
gums, seven of the most representative of which are shown in 
Figs. G, 7, 8, 10 to 13, of ITate XXXII. The carving of the 
pattern shown in Fig. 13, covered 21 feet 8 inches of the bole of 
the tree, commencing at 3 or 4 inches from the ground, making a 
total height from the surface of the ground of about 22 feet. 
The marking shown in Figs. G and l()"extended up the trunks 
of the tiees about 1.1 feet. The dharrook on all these trees wa.s 
cut into the bark with a tomahawk, but did not extend to the 
wood. 

It will perhaps lie interesting to describe another keeparra 
.ground visited by me. whicli is situated lietweeu three and four 

^ “ Journ. Antlirop. Inst.,’’ xxir, 411-427 : o/?. xxt, 29*5— 3.39 ; ‘‘American 
AnrIiropologi..|,” ix, 33-49: ‘’Jouni. Rov. Soo. \.S. IVales,” xxviii, 9S-120 ; 
“Proc. Roy Soc. Ticlon.i,” i.y (X.S.), 137-J73. 



Cerehioiiy of In it iut ion. 


miles north-easterly from the village of Gresford, New South 
Wales. The main camp of the natives who were present at the 
ceremonies was pitched in an open forest, on some gently 
sloping ground a few chains easterly from the left hank of a 
small watercourse, a tribtttary of the Allyn Eiver, within 
Portion No. .55, of 2,000 acres, in the parish of Lewinshrook, 
county of Durham. The local Alhui Eiver tribe were the first 
to erect their camp, around which the other tribes took up 
their positions, each in the directi<m of the country from which 
they had come. 

Close to the eastern side of the general encampment was the 
JcaciMroo, 40 feet by 29 feet, from which the i/njypang or path 
led away on a bearing of N. 85“ E., ascending some sloping 
ground for a distance of IT chains to the goonamhang, on the 
crest of a low ridge. The diameters of this oval space were 
28 feet and 20 feet respectively, being smaller than the oval 
near the camp. The usual heap of earth on vchich the tire 
is kept burning was in the centre of this enclosure. There 
were formerly several marked trees, arf)und the goonamltang, 
but they have all been latrnt down and destroyed by busli 
fires. At a distance of about 7 chains in a north-north- 
westerly direction from the goonambang. .along the top of 
the ridge, were a few other marked trees, the dharroong on 
some of which are still distinguishable. I copied these marks, 
but luive not reproduced them in the present paper. 

Mustering the Tribes . — When it is founil that there are a 
sufficient number of boys old enough for initiation, the head- 
man of the tribe whose turn it is to call the communit}' 
together, who may be called the “Chief Initiator,” sends out 
messengers to all the neighbouring tribes whom it is desired 
shall be present. The headman does not take this step on his 
own responsibility, but after due consultation with the elders of 
his tribe. When one of these messengers' arrives at the camp 
of the tribe he has lieen directed to summon, he sits down in 
sight of the men’s quarters, and some of them go over to him, 
knowing by his manner that he is the bearer of news to their 
tribe. They wotrld treat him hos^iitably, and talk with him 
about general matters of trib.d interest. On the following 
morning lie would accompany the men to the vreeng'gorah' , or 
meeting place where they a.ssemble to discuss all such matters 
as they do not Avish the women or uninitiated youths to take 
part ill. On reaching the weenggarah, which would be only a 
.short distance from the camp, the messenger would tell the 
lieadman and elders the purport of his mission, and would 

' The messenger gcnerallv lias another man witli him nhtn ensaged on this 
dutv, to keep him comparT. 



324 


E. H. Mathews. — The Kccpariv 


hand them a white quartz crystal which had heeii given to 
him hy the chief initiator when dispatching liim on this 
errand. 

If these people, after deliberation among themselves, decide 
to accept the invitation, they give the messenger another white 
stone to be carried back to the headman who sent him. The 
latter, on receiving this token of their concurrence, then selects 
a suitable plan in some part of his own territory where game is 
sufficiently plentiful to afford food for Ids visitors, and there he 
commences to prepare the ground. If, on the contrary, the 
tribe to whom the white stone was sent consider the time 
inopportune, or that there arc other weighty reasons for post- 
poning the general gathering, no white stone is returned Iry 
the messenger, and the initiator then knows that they do 
not approve of his proposal, and the matter lapses for the 
present. 

Assuming that the iuvitaiiirn has been accepted, the iidtiator 
immediately commences to prepare the keeparra ground, and 
dispatches another set of messengers, each of whom are on this 
occasion provided with a bull-roarer (goonandhaJceca), several 
tails or kilts, a belt, and other articles. Each messenger on 
arriving at his destination would be received in tlie manner 
already described, and would hand the bull-roarer to the head- 
man, who would take charge of it, ami the tails would be 
distributed to the men to whom they had been sent. Xothing 
would be said to the women aljout these proceedings until the 
time arrived for making a start for the place of meeting. One of 
tlie men wandd then sound a Imll-roarer just after dark in the 
vicinity of the camp, and next morning every one would pack 
up and proceed by easy stages towards the appointed tryst, 
dances and songs being indulged in at niglit at each of the 
stages along their route. At these camping places, one of the 
men swings the Imll-roarer in tlie adjacent forest just after 
dark, and again a little before daylight, and the women reply to 
it by beating (jn their rugs, and singing ; the men give a shout 
in unison. 

When such a contingent gets within about a day’s journey of 
the main camp, a messenger is sent on to report that they will 
arrive next day or the day following. When they get near the 
camp, the men, women and children sit down a short distance 
out of sight of the goonambang. The men then paint themseh'cs 
with white stripes on their chests, on tliair arms, and on their 
legs from the knee down. When this painting is completed, 
two of the men go ahead by themselves, each of them carrying 
one or two boomerangs in his belt and one in his hand ; in the 
other hand he carries a small bough ready for use by and bye. 



Ccmn'jny of Initiation. 


oZO 

The men belonging to the local tribe — and other mobs, if any, 
who have arrived previously — who may be called the '■ hosts, 
repair from the main camp to the goonambang and sit down 
within it, having tlieir faces turned in the direction of the camp. 
Wien these two men get close to the goonambang they gently 
hit the boomerangs wliich tliey carry in their hands against 
those in their belts, and the hosts answer, hah ! Then they 
advance a few paces, and stamp one foot on the ground, and the 
hosts answer /o7« This beating of boomerangs and stamping 
is repeated till the men get quite close to the back of the 
goonambang. The two men now separate, one going round one 
side, and one round the other, and again meet at the entrance of 
the goonambang, where they stand and dance, shaking their 
boughs and boimierangs for a brief ])eriod. They then throw 
xlown the boughs, and go away back to tlieir comrades, who 
have remained at the place where they painted themselves, and 
all of them now aiq.u'uacli the goonambang, lightly tapping their 
boomerangs tngetiier as they walk along, and on arriving at the 
ring they form a circle round it. 

The hosts now get up and go outside, wliere they remain 
standing in a group, and one or more of their number commence 
sounding the (joonandhahxa or bull-roarer. Tlie women at the 
camp, on hearing this, assemble at the kackaroo, and begin to 
sing and beat their rugs, and some of them dance. The 
women belonging to the new mcil.i also started from whei'e they 
had been sitting down, as soon as tlieir men started for the 
goonambang, and proceeded direct to the main camp, wliere 
they joined the women cif the hosts. 

As soon as the bull-roarers commenced to sound, the men of 
the new mob entered the goonambang, and walked round, and 
then started towards the kackaroo in <> meandering line, in 
single file, carrying their boomerangs and other weapons witli 
them. They were immediately followed by the hosts, each of 
whom carried green hushes in tlieir hands. On arriving at tlie 
circle they walked once round it, and then entered it through 
the opening in its wall, the women at the same time going out of 
it by stepping over the embankment at the otlier end, where they 
remained as siiectators. The men then dance and jump about in 
the ring, uttering guttural noises, the men of the new mob calling 
out the names of a few principal camping grounds in the country 
from which they have eoiiie. All the men ami women then 
disperse into the camp, and the strangers commence erecting 
their ipiarters. These arrivals generally take place in the 
afternoon a few hours hefure sundown. 

Daily Pi'rforjiiancrs of tlu: Main Canip . — Every day the men 
go out limiting, and meet each other in the evening an hour or 

VOL. XXVI. z 



326 


E. H. Mathews. — The, Kceparra 


so before sundown at the goonambang. If some of the men 
liave remained in the camp aU day, they also will proceed to 
the goonambang and meet the others there. When they are all 
assembled, a bull-roarer is sounded, and the}’ march along the 
track in single file to the kackaroo, inside of which the women 
are dancing, having gathered there when they heard the bull- 
roarer. The men then march once round the outside of the 
circle in the same manner as on the arrival of a tribe, already 
described. The women then step out of the ring, and stand a 
few yards from it, where they remain till the conclusion of the 
performance. 

The men now enter the ring and dance round a few times, 
shouting out the names of remarkable places, after which all 
hands walk away to their respective camps. 

A level patch of ground in a convenient part of the camp is 
cleared and made smooth for dancing on. Almost every 
evening one of the tribes present gets up a corroboree for the 
amusement of the others. The men of one tribe dance one 
evening — their women beating time for them ; the ne.xt night 
the men and women of another tribe provide the evening’s 
amusement. 

Taking av:ay the logs . — On the evening of the day preceding 
the principal ceremony, all the tribes remove their camps close 
to the kackaroo, or public ring, where they remain for the 
night. Some of the men go to the goonambang and camp* 
there, and during the night they swing a bull-roarer at intervals, 
and the women at the kackaroo beat their rugs and sing in 
response, whilst the men give the customary shout. At day- 
lueak the following morning a number of the men who have 
been camping with the women at the kackaroo proceed to the 
goonambang, tapping their boomerangs together as they walk, 
and join the other men who were there all night. All the men 
at the goonambang then start towards the kackaroo in single 
file, marching in a meandering course, and shouting as they go. 
On reaching the circle, they march once round the outside of it, 
and then enter it through the opening in the embankment, and 
continue marching round until all of them are within the ring. 
They now jump and dance, forming a group in the centre, after 
which they step out of it, and all the people go and ha\ e their 
breakfast. 

After the morning meal has been disposed of, all the young 
men, accompanied by some of the old fellows, again start away 
to the goonambang, carrying their spears and other weapons 
with them, and commence painting their bodies jet black with 
powdered charcoal and grease. The chiefs and other old men 
remain with the women at the kackaroo, and preparations for 



Ceetmony of Initiaiion. 


327 


the ceremony are at once commenced. The relatives of the 
novices now take them to some convenient place adjacent, and 
paint them all over with red ochre and grease. Some sheets of 
bark are now laid on the ground just inside the boundary of 
the back part of the ring, or, in other words, on that side of it 
which is farthest from the pathway leading to the goonambang. 
Leaves are then thickly strewn on this bark, forming a kind of 
couch, and when the paiiuing of the novices is completed, they 
are led into the riug and placed sitting down in a row on the 
couch of leaves — the novices belonging to each tribe being put 
in a group by themselves on that side of the riug which faces 
their own country. The headmen now ask the women to come 
up close, and the mother of each boy sits ou the ground just 
outside the riug near her soid ; his sisters aud relatives are a 
little farther off, aud the other women aud children outside 
of the last named. If the earth is damp, owing to recent rains, 
pieces of bark stripped from the adjacent trees, or heaps of 
bushes, are laid on the ground for the women to lie on. The 
mothers of the novices are painted with red and white stri2)e.s 
on the face, chest and arms. 

The principal headman then walks along the row of novices, 
bending down the liead of each one until his chin is resting on 
his breast. The women and children are also told to lie down, 
and are covered over with rugs and bushes, some of tlm men 
running round amongst them to see that this formality is properly 
carried out. As soon as the mothers are covered over, they 
are directed to continue making a low Inimming or buzzing- 
sound, in order that they may not hear the guardians taking 
away the novices. IVhile the covering is being placed over 
the women, a man runs away to the goonambang and tells the 
men there that everything is ready. These men, armed wdtli 
their boomerangs and nulla-nullas, then start towards the 
kackaroo, some of them taking up their position on one side 
of the ring, and some on the other, but the majority of them 
stand near the front of it — that is, on the side from which the 
path emerges. The headmen are walking about directing the 
proceedings, being sometimes in the ring, and sometimes outside 
of it. All these operations are carried out as speedily as practi- 
cable, so as not to keep the women — some of whom have 
infants at their breasts — any longer under .such rigorous con- 
cealment than is necessary. 

The men who have been assigned a.s guardians to the novices 
now step forward, and catching them by the arm, help them to 
their feet, and lead them noiselessly away along the pathway 

^ If a boy’s mother is dead, or too ill to be present, ono of bis mother's 
sisters takes her place at the ring. 



328 


E. H. Mathews. — The Keepurra 


towards the goonaiubang, their heads remaining bent down as 
they walk along. When the novices have got about 50 or 100 
yards from the kackaroo, two men who were in readiness, one 
on each side of the ring, commence loudly sounding tlieir 
bull-roarers. All the armed men who are standing round, make 
a noise by beating together two boomerangs, or any two weapons 
which they may happen to have with them. This noise is made 
so that if the string of one of the bull-roarers should break 
— which sometimes happens — the women would not hear it 
lulling on the ground. One of the men goes into the ring, 
swinging his bull-roarer, and the other walks along one side 
near the women. This oidy lasts a few minutes and then 
all the men follow after the novices. While this tumultuous 
noise is going on, the guardians say to each other that they 
suppose Goign is killing all the women and children in the 
camp. This puts the novices in a great state of anxiety and 
alarm, but they are not allowed to speak or gaze about them. 

The novices are conducted along the pathway to the goonam- 
bang, and are placed sitting down on a couch of small bushes 
and leaves which have been prepared for them, between the 
hire and the embankment bounding the ring, their guardians 
sitting down behind them in such a way that each boy may be 
said to be sitting in a man’s lap. The buys of each tribe sit on 
the side of the ring nearest the country they have come from. 

The Kireealho.ng Cainp . — A short digression will now be made 
for the purpose of describing how the women are released from 
their prostrate position, and their subsequent proceedings. As 
soon as the guardians, novices, and the contingent who follow 
them are out of sight of tlie kackaroo, the covering is taken off 
the women Iry the men who have charge of them, and they are 
permitted to rise. First, the mothers of the boys are set free — 
tlien the sisters — and lastly, the other women and children are 
uncovered. The mothers and sisters of the novices generally 
give vent to tears and lamentations when they find the bo vs 
and all the men gone away; and such of the young girls and 
boy.s who have never been to a keeparra before," appear to have 
been very much scared by the strange ordeal through which 
they have just passed. They immediately pack up all their 
mov, allies, and start away some distance' to another locality 
which has been previously decided upon by the headmen of 
the several tribes, and there they erect a new camp, being 
as.sisted in this work by some of the old men who have been 
directed to remain with them. The usual rule of each tribe 
camping round the local mob, each in the direction of their 
respective districts, is observed in the erection of this new 
camp. 



Ctl'criiony of Initiation. 


329 


The mother of each novice, before leaving the kackaroo, picks 
some small green bushes, -which she ties on the top end of her 
yamstick. \viieu these leaves get dry, it will be considered 
■about time to bring the boys back to the kweealbang. The 
sisters of the novices each pick up a piece of burning bark from 
a fire close by the ring, where they liave been smouldering 
ready for use. ” The.se fire-brands, renewed as often as necessary, 
must be carried by them, when going from place to place, till 
thev again meet their brothers at the kweealbang. 

Before finally tpritting the main camp, a small sapling is cut 
down, and one end of it inserted firmly in the ground at the 
kackaroo, in a slanting position, the elevated end pointing in 
the direction of the new camp. If it is intended to erect the 
camp only a little way off, the pole is short ; but if the new 
camp is some distance away, the pole is long. The upper end 
of this pole is ornamented by having a bunch of green leaves or 
grass tied around it. This pointer is left for the purpose of 
siuiding to the kweealbang camp any tribe which is expected, 
but has not yet arrived. 

In the proximity of the new camp, on the side of it 
nearest the place to which the novices will be taken by the 
headmen, a piece of tolerably level ground is selected, and 
cleared of all timber and loose rubbish, and a large fire kindled in 
the middle of it. This cleared space and its adjuncts is called 
hcccalhang (fire place, or place of the fire). Here the mothers 
and sisters of the notdees assemble every day fi)r the purpose of 
singing and dancing, and on these occasions the mothers carry 
the yamsticks, ornamented with bundles of leaves tied on their 
ends, already referred to. 

Ceremonies in the Bush . — As before stated, the novices are 
taken to the goonamhang (excrement place), where tliey remain 
till the women and children have departed from the other circle, 
which would occupy half an hour, or perhaps longer. During 
this time some old men perform feats of jugglery, and exhibit 
white stones (quartz crystals) to the novices. These stones are 
raked out of the heap of earth and ashes in the middle of the 
ring, and are warm, owing to the tire which is burning on top 
of the heap. Tlie.se quartz crystals are believed to be the excre- 
ment of Goign. 

The novices are then helped to their feet, and are taken to 
each of the marked trees in succession. The men stoop down, 
and clear away with their hands all leaves and rubbisli from the 
surface of the ground around each tree, and the novices are 
brought to this clear space, with their heads bowed, and are told 
to look up at the marks on the tree. When it is thought that 
they have seen this sutficiently, they are requested to turn their 



330 


E. H. Mathews. — The Keeparra 


faces towards the grouud as before. There is a cleared path 
from one marked tree to another, and the boys are taken along 
this path to the next tree, when the same formality of clear- 
ing a space around its base is gone through, and the boys are 
again directed to look up. When the men are approaching 
each tree they throw pieces of stick at it, and dance round it on 
the clear space referred to, rubbing their hands upon the tree 
and teUing the boys to take particular notice of the marks upon 
it. The men make a guttural noise as the novices are shown 
each tree, and also in going from one tree to another. 

After the novices have been shown the goonambang, and all 
the marked trees around it, they are next taken away by their 
guardians and the old men, several miles into the bush, to a 
camp called Ixelaybcauj (urinating place). During the journey 
thither the novices are not allowed to gaze about them, but 
have to keep their eyes cast upon the ground at their feet, and 
their hands held on their stomachs, as they walk along with 
their guardians. The headmen and young fellows who accom- 
pany them, are also a little way behind the novices, shouting 
and making a great noise as they march along. 

At the keelaybang a camp is formed by erecting a long, con- 
tinuous guuyah or mia-mia in the following manner. (Fig. .3, 
Plato XXXII.) A row of wooden forks, about 4 or 5 feet 
high, are first inserted in the ground, and saplings laid from 
fork to fork, resembling a fence with only one top rail. All 
along one side of this top rail, reaching from it to the ground, 
bark and bushes arc placed in a slanting position, forming a 
.shelter, covered in on one side, leaving the other side open. U nder 
the open side leaves are thickly strewn on the ground, for the 
men and boys to lie upon. The back of this shelter is towards 
the women’s camp. A row of fires are lit in front of this 
shelter, and beyond these fires the surface of the ground is 
cleared of all loo.se rubbish and grass for a distance of several 
y.ards, the rubbish forming a sort of embankment around the 
fci'ther side of the cleared space. Such a camp would be 
formed on some tolerably level ground near a running stream 
or water-hole. 

When the camp at the keelaybang has been completed the 
novices are placed lying down in a row on the leaves which have 
been spread on the ground under the shelter, and are covered 
over -with rugs, each boy having his guardian beside him. The 
novices and guardians occupy a central position, and the rest of 
the men camp under the remaiuder of the shelter, in both 
directions. During the day-time the novices are sometimes 
allowed to sit up, keeping their eyes towards the grouud, but 
are not allowed to speak to anyone. If a boy wants anything 



Ceremony of Initiation. 


o.-> < 
O'ji 

he must touch his guardian, who then commences asking him 
the most likely things, until he guesses correctly, when the hoy 
nods assent. If he wants to micturate, the guardian leads him 
out to the fire, and he micturates in the ashes. 

On the first night of the arrival of the novdces at the keelaj - 
bang, some human excrement is given to them as they sit in the 
camp. It is laid on pieces of bark, and each boy has to eat the 
share which is allotted to him by the headmen. At this camp 
they are also req^uired, on more than one occasion, to drink the 
urine of some of the men, collected in a coolamin for the purpose. 
During the celebration of these rites, a bull-roarer is sounded in 
the neighbouring forest. 

At this camp there are pantomimic performances nearly every 
night, the men dancing and acting on the clear space already 
described. Sometimes the animal imitated is the kangaroo-^ 
the men hopping along one after the other. The iguana is also 
represented by the men crawling along on the ground, moving 
their hands and feet like that animal. At other times the 
soldier bird is imitated ; sometimes the flying fox, the native 
bear, the rock wallaby, the wombat, and other animals. Those 
performances are generally carried on at niglit by the light of 
the row of camp fires — the novices sitting in the shelter, while 
the men are acting on the other side of the fire. Some of the 
performances are, however, enacted during tlie day, after the 
men leturn from hunting. All these pantomimic representa- 
tions are largely mixed with abominable and obscene gestures. 
After the dances and games are over, one of the men sometiiin-s 
sounds a goomndliakeea (e.xcrement-eater) in the bush near the 
camp. The guardians or some of the other men then shout out, 
as if addressing some one, “ The boys are here yet ! Don’t 
interfere with them I ” The novices are told that the noise 
they hear is the voice of Goign, who would come and eat them 
if he got the chance. 

During the early part of each day, the men go out hunting 
and bring home t!ie results of the chase, consisting of kangaroos, 
iguanas, liiuD, and other game, as well as wild honey. The 
novices are not allowed to leave the camp, but mu^t sit in the 
•shelter all day with their eyes cast down, some of their 
guardians remaining with them. Some of tlie game oaunht 
during the day is cooked for the novices, the bones and sinmTs 
being taken out of it, and the pieces cut small, so that thev 
may not be able to di.stinguish what animal's flesh is beiu'»- 
given to tliem. Some of the old men go round to see that the 
food for the novices is prepared according to rule, and when it 
is ready the guardians carry it to them. 

One or more of the tribes who intended to be present muv 



332 E. H. MATIIE^vs . — Tlic Kcci>orro 

have been uua^■oiuably detained on the way, and do not reach 
the main camp nntil a few days after the novices have been 
taken away. Such a tribe, on reachiii|a' the main camping 
place, and finding all the people gone awa}', wrjiikl go to the 
kackaroo, and on seeing the index pole would stait away in 
that direction, and join tlic other peojile at the new camp, and 
take up their cpiarters on the side nearest their own country. 
The young fellows belonging to these new arrivals are always 
eager to be present and assist at the performances at the 
keelaybang, and accordingly they start out to the camp in the 
hush. On the way they paint their bodies with powdered 
charcoal, olitained by liurning the hark of the apple tree or 
hloodwood, and mixing it witli grease. 

These men, who are called lecranj (bushesj, approach the 
keelaybang in single file, each man holding a green bu.sh in 
front of him, which liides his face and body as far as the waist, 
and as they walk along they make a shrill sound resembling 
tlie howliii'g of the dingo, or wild dog. On hearing this noise, 
the guardians and otlier men present say to each other, “ That 
must he Thoorhock's dogs coming to kill the boys; let us cut 
steps in the trees near us so that the boys can climli up out of 
their way.” A few of the men at the hack of the keelaybang 
commence chopping at a tree, and the boys are lielped to their 
feet, and are put standing in a row near tlie fires, each hoy 
being supported ly his guardian. Ey this time the keeraiig 
have reached the clear space at the keelaybang, where they 
throw down their hushes and spread out in a line in front of 
the novices, and jump al'ont, swaying their arms, after which 
they retire to one end of the camp. The other men then go 
ai;d pick nj) the bushes tlirown dcjwn by tlie keerang, and pull 
the leaves off them, making a continuous grunting noise wliile 
so empdoyed. The novices are then put back in their former 
jilaces, and the keerang pwoceed to erect their quarters, liy 
adding to one end of the same line <.'f forks and hushes already 
described. 

After the novices have l>een aliout a week at the keelaybang 
another moh of men from the women's camp make their ajipiear- 
aiice during the afternoon. They approach the camp in the 
same manner, carrying bushes and imitating the native dog. 
like the previous mob, and the novices are brought out to see 
them in the same way. The men at the camp pull the leaves 
off the boughs thrown down by the keerang, xvho sit down at 
one end of the clear space. After tlie formalities of their 
reception have been gone through, the new arrivals, who are 
not painted black on this occasion, ask some of the other men 
to accompiany them a little way from the camp, where they 



Ci reraony of Initiation. 


OOO 

OOO 

hold a consultation as to the date on w-hich the novices will be 
taken to the kweealhang. If the course of performances in 
the hush have been completed, the hoys may be returned next 
day, hut if some further instruction is necessary, the date is 
arranged accoidiuglv. The keerang then take their leave, and 
return to the kweealhang camp. After thi.s visit of the keerang 
the novices are allowed greater liberty, being permitted to sit 
up straight in the camp, and occasionally to stand. Having 
been lying so long, and sitting with their heads bent down, 
makes them weak and giddy, so that when they try to stand 
they stagger like a drunken man, and have to be helped to 
their feet^, as before stated, Ijy tlieir guardians. It is therefore 
necessary to give them a little relaxation to afford them an 
opportunity of regaining their strength before attempting the 
journey to the kweealhang. During the last night of the 
sojourn at the keelaybung the old men sing Goign’s song 
while the boys are lying in the camp. 

The day after the arrival of the Keerang — or it may be in a 
few days’ time — very early in the morning, perhaps before 
sunrise, one of the headmen pretends to see a large brown 
siptirrel going into a hole in a tree growing near the camp, and 
asks one of the men to catch it. The tail of a squirrel or 
opossum has previously been fastened on the side of this hole 
by one of the men, unknown to the boys, to convey the idea 
that the rest of the animal is within. Tlie novices are then 
brought out aud placed standing in a row between the camp 
and the fires, with their eyes cast down. A man standing at 
the butt of the tree commences to cut steps as if going to climb 
it, and a few of the men run about and throw sticks at the 
squirrel’s tail. Others say, “ You sliould not interfere with 
Goign’s scpiirrel. or he will come and kill both us and the boys.” 
Two bull-roarers are then heard close by, and some of the men 
call out to those throwing the sticks, “ We told you to beware of 
Goigu — here he comes ! ’’ This is said to impress the boys with 
supernatural terror. The btdl-roarers increase in loudness, and 
come quite near, and the guardians tell the novices to raise 
their heads and look. They then see two men swinging each a 
goonnialhalci’i'a (c.Norement-cater) on the cleared space beyond 
the line of fires. The boys are then cautioned by the old men 
that if ever they tell the women or uninitiated that they have 
seen this instrument the penalty will be death. The bull- 
roarers are then given into the hands ' the novices, who touch 
their bodies with them. 

lutimi of the Boys . — A start is now made towards the 
women’s camp, all the men and boys leaving the keelaybang 
in single tile. Some distance on the way they hear the keerang 



334 


E. H. Mathews. — The Kcefawa 


coming to meet them, cooeeing like the dingo as before, and 
walking in the nsual way. The men and boys then change 
their position, and all march abreast. When the keerang come 
near, they spread out in a row in front of the men and boys, 
and throw pieces of bark over them, dancing as they do so. 
These pieces of bark about 9 inches or a foot long, and 2 or 3 
inches wide, are cut off trees or saplings for the purpose. The 
keerang then march right through the line of men and boys, 
some going through at one place and .some at another, the line 
opening to let them pass. Wlien they get to the rear, they turn 
round and again throw pieces of bark over the heads of the men 
and boys. The latter keep marching on, and the keerang follow 
them till they arrive at a water-hole or running stream, which 
has previously been agreed upon as a suitable bathing place. 
Here a halt is made, and the keerang start away back to the 
women’s camp, and report that the men and boys will arrive in a 
few hours’ time. The women then assemble at the kweealbang 
fire, and assist the men to cut bark and bushes, which are laid 
in a ring round the fire ready fur use by and bye. The mothers 
are painted on the chest and arms, and are invested with their 
personal adornments. 

The men and botys who remained at the water-hole or creek in 
the bush, as soon as the keerang left them, proceeded to wash 
the colouring matter off their bodies. They went into the 
water-hole one after the other, and came out in the same way. 
The novices entered the water first, and as each boy plunged in, 
the men standing around gave a shout. On coming out of the 
water-hole they paint their bodies white with pijje-clay, which is 
diluted in water in one or more coolamitis which have been cut 
for the xjurpose. The men help each other at this work, until 
every man and boy present have been piainted ^\hite all over 
their bodies. The hair on the heads of the novices is now 
singed, fcr the purpose of making the women believe that Goign 
has had them in the fire during their .sojourn in the bush. The 
belt and four tails or kilts are now pjut uf)on each boy, as well 
as head-bands, and bands acro.ss the body like shoulder-belts, 
.‘jtrings are bound tightly round the upper arms of the novices 
to make their muscles swell, which is sujiposed to cause their 
arms to grow stronger. The men also decorate theinseh'es in 
their full regalia. 

The journey towards the kweealbang (fire place) is now 
resumed, all hands starting away from the water-hole in single 
file ; and on going a short distance they are again met by the 
keerang, who salute them in the same manner as before, and 
then return to the kweealbang, and report that the novices will 
shortly arrive. The keerang and other men who have remained 



Ceremony of Initiation. 


in the camp then muster up all the women, and place them 
lying down round the fire, a little way outside the ring of bushes 
before referred to, the women of each tribe being kept in groups 
themselves on the side next their own district, and are 
covered over with rugs and bushes. The mothers of the boys 
are on the outside, or farthest from the fire, which is composed 
of pieces of wood and bark, slowly burning within the circle of 
green bushes which are laid around it. If the ground is wet 
and cold, pieces of hark are spread upon it for the women to lie 
upon. As soon as they are covered over, the women keep up a 
humming noise the same as they did on the morning the novices 
were taken away from the kackaroo. A few of the old men 
remain standing near them, armed with spears, to see that the 
covering is not interfered with. 

One of the keerang now goes and meets the men and novices 
— who may be distinguished as the “■ white mob ” — who are by 
this time waiting just out of sight, and tells them that everj”- 
thing is ready. They then march on (quickly, and on arriving 
at the kweealbang they disband, the men and novices belong- 
ing to each tribe taking up their })()^ition on tlieside which is in 
the direction of their country. Their movements are made as 
noiselessly as possible, so that the women may not hear them 
coming. All of them then join hands, each man having hold of 
the hand of the man or l.ioy on his right and on his left, having 
their faces toward the fire in the centre, and form a complete 
circle round the women. Fig. 4, I’late XXXII. 

The rugs are now taken olf the women, and tlie mothers are 
called up first, after which the other women are permitted to 
rise. Owing to the humming noise which they have themselves 
been making, and the quiet manner in which the men and bco.s 
have come in, sucli of the younger women who have not been 
to a I'tepurm before are surprised to sec tlie cordon of “white 
men ” standing around them. On account of the novices hair 
being singed short, and the white paint on their bodies, the 
mothers are sometimes unable to recogni.se their own sons. The 
old men who are in the ring with the women, therefore, conduct 
each mother to her son where he is standing holding the hand 
of the men on each side of him. His mother then approaches 
him, and holds her breast to his face, pretending to suckle him. 
The sisters of each boy then go up to him, and rub their feet on 
his ankles. The mothers then pass out under the arms of the 
men ; then the sisters pass out, and lastly all the other women 
and the men who had charge of them in the ring, and stand 
close by as spectators of the remainder of the proceedings. The 
mothers and other women belonging to each tribe go out of the 
ring of “ white men ” on the side next their own country. The 



336 


E. JI. Mathews. — The Keeparra 


pieces of burning bark which the sisters of the novices have 
been obliged to carry, as before stated, are left at tlie kweeai- 
bang. 

Two old men, and two of the elder women, now go inside the 
ring of men and bo vs, and walk round — a man and a woman 
going one way, and the other man and woman going in the 
contrary direction. The men tap the ends of their boomerangs 
together as they walk, and the women wave their arms. The 
“white nioh,’’ who are still lioldiiig each other’s hands, swing 
their arms up and down as tlie men and women march round. 
Having gone round in this manner two or three times, the men 
and women come out, and the ‘ white mob ’’ keep closing in 
nearer and nearer the fire — the guardians and novices being in 
the centre. The huslies which had previously been laid round 
the fire are now thrown upon it. The novices are then lifted up 
in the men’s arms, two or three men, including the guardian, 
to each boy, who advance and stand on the green bushes, which 
by this time are emitting a dense smoke, which ascends round 
the men and boys. As the neophytes are held up in the smoke, 
the men raise a guttural shout, and the women wave their arm.s 
up and down. 

When the boys lia\'e been sufficiently smoked, their guardians 
take them awa}', and they are followed by the otlier men for 
about 100 yards. All the men, e.xcept the guardians, now 
return to the fire and stand on the green bushes in turn, until 
they liave all been smoked. The keerang and other men who 
remained at the women’s camp have been standing by as 
spectators, directing the proceedings all the time — the principal 
headmen being among them. MTieu the fumigating of the men 
and novices has been completed the women go away to their 
camp, which is close by, and the men proceed to theirs — the 
iiiarried men joining their wives later on. In the meantime the 
novices, who are now called Icecparm, have been taken a short 
distance from the main camp, where quarters are prepared for 
them, and their guardians remain with them. 

The next morning the women proceed again to the kweeal- 
bang and light a fire. The mothers of the novices stand in a 
row facing the fire, the other women being behind them (Fig. 5, 
Plate XXXIl). Each mother has her yamstick with her, and 
sticks it into the ground beside her, the top end of it being 
ornamented with the hunch of bushes which were fastened to 
it the morning the noxdces were taken away from the kackaroo. 
Xets are spread in a line upon the ground, and beside them are 
some coolainins containing water. When all is ready, some of 
the old men who are assisting the women give a signal, and the 
guardians and novices approach the k\veealbang. The mothers 



Ceremony of Initiation. 


337 


wave their yamstieks, and when the men and boys come near, 
the women shout, and throw pieces of hark over the men’s 
heads. The guardians also throw pieces of hark over the heads 
of the women. The novices are placed sitting down on the 
nets, and hend forward and drink water out of the coolamins 
which are on the ground in front of them. Then the mothers 
go hack to their own C|uarters, and the no\ice3 are taken by 
their guardians a short distance away, where they make a camp. 
That night a white stone is given to each neophyte hv some of 
the old men ; it is put into a small hag, and is fastened to the 
hoy’s girdle. The nomces are also forbidden to eat certain 
kmds of food until relieved from this restriction by the old 
men. 

Coiulusion .- — The following day, the strange tribes begin to 
disperse, and start away on their return journey to the districts 
from which they have come. The local tribe also shift awav to 
another part of their own hunting grounds. Each tribe take 
their own novices away with them, and put them through the 
remaining stages of initiation in their own country. This is 
done in the following manner: — At the end of a certain time 
of probation, which is fixed by the headmen, the neophytes, 
painted and dressed as men of the tribe, are brought to a fire 
near the men’s camp, where there is food ready laid on rims 
spread upon the ground. All the women are there, and the 
novices sit down and eat the food which has been prepared for 
them. That night they camp in sight of the men’s quarters, 
and each .succeeding night they come a little closer, until at last 
they get right into the single men’s camp. From the time the 
novices left the kweealbang until now they have been com- 
pelled to carry pieces of burning bark everywhere they went 
but they are now released from carrying the firebrands any 
more. If any of the boys are very young, they may be required 
to carry a hrestick till their hair grows as long as it was before 
being singed at the water-hole in the bush, as already described 
This is said to be done to cause the novice.s’ hands and arms to 
grow stronger. The novices are now given a new name, and 
are permitted to mix with the men, but must not go amou" the 
women until they have attended a few more keeparras, and 
have lost their boyish voice. After they have qualified them- 
selves by passing through all the stages of i)robation attached 
to the initiation ceremonies of their tribe, the novices are allowed 
to take a wife from among those women whom the class laws 
permit them to marry. 

In some paits of the tract of country to which the cere- 
monies herein described apply, one of the front incisor teeth 
was formerly extracted during the time the novices were away 



338 


1{. H, Mathews. — The Keeparra 


at the keelaybaiig, but as this custom is not now enforced 
anywhere, I have not included it in this paper. From con- 
versations which I iiave had with very old black fellows, there 
appear to be some grounds for supposing that the custom was 
not universally carried out in the districts referred to. I am 
now making further investigations into this matter, the results 
of which will be included in a subsequent paper. 

Adjoining the north-west corner of the country peopled by 
the tribes dealt with in this article, is a small community 
occupying the Tableland of Xew England, whose initiation 
ceremonies have been described by me in a paper contributed 
to the Pioyal Society of Victoria.^ 


Appendix. 

The Bhalmi Ceremony. 

A short or abridged form of initiation ceremony, called 
Dhalyai, is sometimes adopted by the same tribes who inhabit 
the tract of couutr}^ dealt with in this paper. The DhaUjai is 
used only when there is no time, or it is otherwise inconvenient, 
to hold the complete ceremony of the Keeparra. If a tribe has 
a novice who is old enough to be initiated, and it will be some 
time yet before another keeparra. will be held, it is sometimes 
thought desirable or politic to inaugurate him into the rank of 
manhood. Xo prepared ground is required, nor is it necessaiy 
that the neighbouring tribes should be summoned, as is impera- 
tive in the case of the keeparra, but each tribe initiate their 
own boys. The following is a brief outline of the Dhalgai 
ceremony : 

The novice, yooroomin, is taken away' some morning from the 
camp by" three or four of the old men, under pretext of going out 
hunting, and they escort him to a })lace previously agreed upon 
among themselves. A number of the other men also start away 
from the camp in a different direction, so that neither the women 
nor the novice may suspect anything unusual. When this 
latter mob get out of sight of the camp, they change their 
course, and repair to the place which has been fixed upon for 
the initiation of the boy — probably some well-known water- 
hole. 

The men who have the novice in charge are the first to reach 
the appointed locality, and when they get near the water-hole 
they" sit down, and one of them goes on ahead, and lights a fire 
in a level, open piece of ground. This man then returns to 
where he left his comrade.s, and one of them, who is a brother- 

* “The Bnrbung of the New England Tribea. N.S. Wales,” “Proc. Kor. .Soc. 
Tictoria,” ix (N.S.), 120-136. 



CerertLony of Initiation, 339 

in-law actual or potential, of the no\ice, then bends his head 
upon his breast, and conducts him to the tire, and places him 
sitting down a httle way from it. 

The other detachment of men, who went away m a dmerent 
direction, now approach, walking in single file, with a bush in 
each hand, held up in front of them so that their faces are not 
visible. These men, who are called yillaij, are painted with 
white stripes on the face, chest and hmbs. As they march 
along, they make a noise like the native dog, and on getting close 
to the boy, they throw pieces of stick over his head, which faU 
to the ground just beyond him. He is permitted to raise his 
head and look at them, and then cast his eyes on the ground as 
before. They then throw away their bushes, and, spreading out 
in front of the uoidce, stoop down and commence scraping the 
rubbish off the ground with their hands. They keep stepping 
backwards and scrajiing, until they ha\'e a small space cleared 
of aU leaves and small sticks in front of the novice, who is stUl 
sitting on the ground with his head bowed. 

The yillay then step into the space which they have thus 
cleared and commence to jump and dance, and the boy is told 
to look at them. One of their member then steps out in front 
of the rest on this cleared space and swings the goonandhakeea, 
and the no\dce is raised to his feet and is directed to look. The 
old men tell him the mysteries connected with the use of the 
instrument which he now sees before him. They then step up 
C|uite close to the novice in a menacing attitude, with their 
weapons in their hands, and threaten him that if ever he 
divulges what he has now seen, he will be killed, either by the 
hands of his own tribesmen, or by supernatural agency. After 
this ordeal is over, he is allowed to examine the sacred instru- 
ment. 

All the men then sit down near the fire, the neophyte being 
amongst them. He is then painted as a man of the tribe, and 
invested with a complete set of man’s attire, and the old men 
show him quartz crystals and give him advice as to his future 
conduct. Tlie ceremony is now over, and on returning to the 
camp that afternoon, the novice remains in the men’s cj^uarters. 
and does not go back to his mother, or his small brothers, or 
sisters any more. He must, however, keep away from the 
women’s quarters and abstain from eating certain kinds of food 
during a period to be determined by the headmen. At the 
next keeparra which is held in the community, the neophyte 
will be shown all the marked trees, and the secret ceremonies 
which are enacted at the goonambang, the keelaybang, and all 
the final proceedings at the women’s camp. 

xV novice who has been admitted to the status of manhood by 



340 


H. Balfour. — Life History 


means of the Dhalgai ceremony is called a Dhalgai man, in con- 
tradistinction to those who have been initiated at the Keeparra, 
who are always spoken of as Keeparra men. 

E.q}Ia7iafio/i of Plat r XXXII. 

A brief explanation of the Figures shown on the Plate will 
now be given — the reader being referred to the text for further 
details. 

Fig. 1 is the KacTcayoo, 2S feet hv 2',i feet : a is a group of two boys ; b a group 
of four boys; c aurl d groups of three boys each. Outside 
the embaukment are the mothers of the boys, and the other 
women farther back a\ h\ c', d' , e aiidy are tlie men swinging tlie 
buU-roarers — one of them haring entered tlie oral. Tlie other 
meu are not shown as it would unnecessarily crowd the Plate. 

Fig. 2 represents the Goonambang (Excrement Place), 31 feet by 26 feet, with 
the heap of earth, e. in the centre. The four groups of boys, a, 
b, c. and <?, are represented sitting between the heap and the 
embankment, but it has not been thought necessary to show the 
positions of the men — this haring been sufficiently explained in 
the descriptien of the keeparra ground. The track, guppaiig, 
leading from the gooanmhang to the kackaroo, is shown by a duttocl 
line in this as well as in Fig. 1. 

Fig. 3 represents the Keelaybaiig (llicturatina Place), a, b, being the line of 
gunyahs or sheltei-s, c, o the row of tires, and d the clear space 
where the men perform their plays and dances. 

Fig. 4 is the Kiceealhang (Fire Place), ^ is the fire in the centre,around whicha 
heap of green bushes,y, are laid ; a, b, c, d, are the mothers of the 
norices, and the other women, lying down, corered over with rugs 
and bushes ; e, e, e, e, is the circle of men and boys painted white, 
and haring their hands joined together ; h is the way the meu and 
norices hare come in from the bush. 

Figs. 6 to 13 represent the dharrook carred upon trees growing around the 
goonamhang, which are fully described in prerious pages. 

Fig. 3 represents the place w here the norices are brought in, and are given a 
drink of water ; a, a, are the mothers standing in a row at the 
fire,y, — the other women, being behind them. On the other 
side of tlie fire is a row of coolamins, h, b, containing water : c, c, 
is the row of norices, and d, d, are the guardians ; e, e, are the 
other men present ; and h is the direction from which they hare 
just come. 


Life History of mi Aoiiori Fakir; v:itli E'Jubition of the 
Human Skull used hy him- as a Driiiking Vessel, aad 
Xijtcs on the sim ilar m>' of Skills hy other Paces. By Hf.xry 
Balfour, M.A. 

[with plates sxxiii-xxxit.] 

Being aiixiou.s to obtain for the Pitt Rivers iMuseum a 
specimen of the human calvaria u.sed as a drinking vessel 
by Agbori Fakirs in India, I wrote to Surgeon Captain H. E. 
Drake Brockman, I.il.S., asking him to try and obtain one for 
me. This be not only succeeded in doing, having obtained 






ff an Aghori FaLir. 


341 


tliu specimen wliicli I am exhibiting, but lie also very kindly 
ubtiiined all the infurniation which he could regarding the 
Aghori who owned and useel this skidl as his drinking bowl. 
As this information is of considerable interest, and as I am not 
aware that the individual historv of an Aghori has before been 
published, I thought that it would be of interest to the members 
of the Institute if I were to bring these notes before them. 
The personal history of its former owner, lends interest to the 
skull bowl as a specimen, and any reliable information regarding 
the very peculiar sect of ascetics known as the Aghori must be 
of value, especially since it appears that their numbers are 
diminishing, and their unpleasantly pecnliar customs seem 
liknly to die out at no very remote period. The interests 
of culture demand the sup]>ression of such aggressively ascetic 
doctrines, but the interests of anthropology demand that they 
should be thoronohlv investigated ami studied before it is too late. 

Oil the general subject of the Aglmii Takir of India, Or. Drake 
Brockman supplies the following notes : — 

■' The Aghori is a class of Hindu Fakir rarely seen now-a-days, 
and fast becoiuing extinct, who wander about the length and 
breadth of India, (dther singly or in pairs, and will often eat 
offid and filth of every description, including the tlesh of dead 
animals, human and other excreta, ami ulteii human tle.sh when 
obtainable. As far as I can asceit.un from im[uiry from pundits 
and others at the sacred places, this class of Himlu Fakir takes 
its origin fioni the so-called Gorakpunt Fakirs, the originator 
of their sect being one Gor.tk Xath, at some remote date, 

‘■The sect, as stated by the fakir Huti Xatli, from whom the 
drinking vessel sent was obtaiiietl, appears to be sub-divided 
into three sections, viz.: 1, Gghar; 'I, Sarbhunji; 3, Ghure. 
There appears to he little ditfcivnce hetween these three 
sec tions, as they can eat together and intermarry, thereby 
violating the two most .stringent conditions of caste etii[Uette. 
The members of this sei-t wear only ear-rings, no other adorn- 
ment being allowed. They all appear to ciiange their names 
when admitted into the sect, and take those a.llotted to them at 
the time of admission by the respective gurus, at whose hands 
thev have been initi.ited into the sect. 

"It is very ditficult to obtain much reliable information 
concerning this sect of religious mendicants, partly from the 
fact that their numbers now are few, that they are scattered 
in twos and threes all over India, and that they are more or 
less looked down upon and despised by the people, who simply 
feed them at festivals as an ordinary act of charity. 

“Their religious rites and beliefs are somewhat curious, in 
that, as regards admission to their fraternity, a member of any 

VOL. XXVI. 2 A 



342 


H. BALForR . — Life Hisforu 


religion or creed, he lie Christian, iMussulman or Hindu, is 
eligible for admission to the sect, and the only thing necessary 
is that each must become a cheln blisciple) of a fjvru, prior to 
their formal admission, for a period of six months at least. 

“From inquire of an intelligent pundit of Hurdwar, who, 
I have every reason to believe, is reliable, in tluit tliis place 
is one of the few resort.s of this particular class of mendicants- — 
it appears that the term Oghar is applied chiefly to those members 
of tlie sect who have previously been Mohammedans, but is not 
absolutely restricted. It also appears that the name of Oghar is 
derived from the founder of the section that goes bv this name, 
a certain Oghar Xatli. Members of this «eet of Aghori Fakir do 
not appear to eat offal to the extent that the other two sects do, 
the Sarbhunii and Ghure ; the habits of these latter are said to 
be of the filthiest possible description ; they stick at nothing, 
and will eagerly devour human flesh, human or other excreta, 
and drink urine. One curious fact is that they can and will eat 
the flesh of any dead animal with one exception, tliat is the 
horse ; the exact reason of this, which I have often tried to elicit 
from pundits, I have been unable to a.scertain.^ 

“ Phakkars do not eat human flesh, and are probably looked 
up to by the other members of this sect, as being a bit better 
than themselves, partly from this reason, but also from the fact 
that they are celibate, or at aiiv rate are not sn] posed to marrv. 

‘•While at Hurdwar recently, I wa.s able to procure a stick 
used and carried by this fakir; it is cut from a tree known bv 
the name of ‘ Teiphul.' a fairlv C(.immon one, whose bark i.s 
covered with thorns something like the ordinary rose tree bark, 
only more pronounced in the way of being cisvered with thorns. 
I wa.s told that two of these fakirs lived on the opposite side of 
the Gauge', in some caves in the lulls surrounding Hurdwar, 
and that (jccasionally they cotild he seen wandering along the 
hanks at dusk in sean-h of offal, etc., but that on being approached 
they at once bolted into the jungle and could not be tracked. 
I tried to get some information concerning them and to procure 
their drinking vessel', but, I regret to sav, witliout avail.” 

As Barth (“ Eeligions of India,’’ p. 214, 1S92) says, “From 
the outset, and more than any other Hindu religion, Civaism 
has pandered to ascetic fanaticism.” The Aghori form perhaps 
the lowest grade of the Sivaite sects. From TVatson and Kaye 
and others,- we learn that wdiile formerly numerous, this sect <d' 
devotees has now- dwindled down to a very few members, and 

^ Is tills connected with the idea, prevalent in India, that the horse is a 
luch-bringinix animal, and that it is nnluckv to eat its flesh ^ Crooke (Intro- 
duction to “Popular Religion and Folklore of XT. India,” p, 318) savs, “ Eating 
horse flesh is supposed to bring on cr-.unp and when a sepoy at rifle practice ini-.ses 
the target, ki5 comrades taunt 'him with having eaten the uniuekv meat ” — H B, 
Watson and Kaye, Peoples of India,” II, pi. 94; E. Balfour, “Cyelopedia 


of an A(jlior'i Fakir. 


343 


that as an organised institution it is well-nigh extinct. Altliuugh 
there are doubtless many sincere devotees, the cult would seem 
largely to be maintained as a form of imposture, sa^-ouring of 
hypocritical charlatanism, “ the object being to excite the wonder 
of the beholders, and make them believe in the utter indifieience 
of the Aghora to worldly enjormtents. . . . They go aliout 

nude, with a fresh human skull in their hands, of which they 
had previousl}’ eaten the putrid fiedi, and afterwards scraped 
out the brain and eyes with their Hngers, into which is poured 
whatsoever is given them to drink, and to this they pretend to 
be indifferent whether it he ardent S[iiiit.s or water. . . . The 
Aghora is an object of terror and disgust. Hindus, however, 
Ljok on these wretches with veneration, and none dare to dii\>; 
them from their doors ” (E. Balfour, ciuoting Wat.soii and Kaye .. 
'Wilicins says that “the original Aghori-worship seems to have 
been devoted to the female powers, or Devi, in one of her many 
forms, at]d to have demanded human victims.”^ 

The accounts of this sect which I have seen are very meagre.® 
and. in the scarcity of details concerning i)s vi.)taries. the account 
of an individual Agliori, the <iwner of the .skull-bowl exhibitcil, 
sill add jirove of interest. I give the account as sent to me by 1 )i . 
Drake Brockman, who Iiad it fimn the man’s own lips. He sat s ; 

“ The accompanying drinking vessel (Fig. 1), which on inspec- 
tion will be seen to consist of the complete vault of a human 
skull, comprising the frontal, two piarietul, and occipital horn s, 
wasohtained hyme directly from one of tliese fakirs, after many 
months of ^earcli, and. in order to loiid additional interest to it 
as an ethnological enrio.-ity, I had the man’s history taken down 
at the time, together ’.vith a few intere.-ting points regarding 
this kind of ascetic, which were elicited from him hy (piestiouiim. 
I will now jii'oceed to give it in detail. He .stated : Afv iianm 
was Kallu Siiigli, father's name Fateh Singh, caste Lohai ,,i 

of India ” ; Wilkins, ^Vrodern ITindui'-ni/ p. '*9; M. A. Sherring, ‘‘ iiiiia i 

Tribes and C.i'-tes,” 1872. p. 2(>9. 

^ E. W. Hopkins, " Religions of India.” 1S06, p. 490, savs : Achori nnd :11 
female immsters naturallv associate <y'iva, who ia tbeir intellectual and 

nuiral counterpart, Tlie older Agbor^^ exacted liurnan ^u(•nfiee in lioiiour of 
Devi. Parvati, the wife of and in a iKue on p. o33 • “ It is from tlii*^ t’^ibe 

[the Bhil'"’ that the wordiip of Aghoii. the Yiudhya tiend. accepted as a torni 
of Kali, was introduced into worship.” 

The rersatile consort of Siva is known under a great variety of names and 
cliaracter>, Devi, Parvati, Durga, Kali, Unia, etc. 

' The be>t account which I have seen is that by Mr. II. W. Barrow-. “ On 
Agboris and Aghoripanthis,” published in the “ Jourii. Anthrop. 8oe of B nn- 
bay,” vol. hi, 1893, pp 197-251, to which I w-as referred b} Prof. Tvlor. I’iiis 
account is exceedingly inter* sling, and gives numerous r*d'erence?' to otlit-r 
litemture. The description relating to initiaiion ceremonies is important. It 
appears from tliis paper that the Aghorapanthis should be regarded a«5 niodern 
degenerate rejiresentatives of the earlier Aghoris. The paper was compded Irom 
MS Notes on the “ Aghoris and Cannilaiism in India,” by the late ]Mr. Edw.ird 
Tyrrdl Leith. •> •> 



H. E VLFOrK.-“Z!y^ lI'LS‘ory 


34 1 

workei' in iron , ky calling a S'lijahjor (iiieaning a polLslier nr 
Iniriiislier a resident in Patiala city tcapital of a large native 
state in the Punjah), and inv age is thirty years.” 

On being asked when and how he came into the sect in which 
he was, he replied, “ ily mother died when I ava.s six months 
old, my father bruuglit me np. 4Vhen I was twelve years ot 
agr- my father died. 1 had> no nexta-ii-kin, and then stayed in 
the city of Patiala for some time, and maintained myself by 
begging, but, wdieii the people of luy caste began to jeer at me, 
1 left the place ami came begging to iMauza (meaning a %'illage) 
Sliajjiulpur ilaji'a, winch is in Eritish territory, lietweeii Patiala 
and Umlidlla. and abi.iut 30 kos^ from i’atiala to the north. 
There my relations lived, bat they w(.)uld not keep me ; then I 
dep irted from there, ami came to a village, the name of wliich 
I hive forgotten, al.M.iut three kos from wlauza .Shajjadpur Majid. 
In this Milage there were ten or twelve houses occupied hy 

< >g'ii,i' and Sar'ohnnji pei.'ple. 

■■ In this place one Oghar made me his(.7n’7« jlisciplej, but first 
of all the,, impiired into my athiiis, and I told them that I had 
no a-aris next-of-kin), and I asked them to make me one of 
their sect : they then kept me with them. For six months I 
f-t.iyi d wit'.i tlu'in in that place, and begged along with them, 
and .'Upported myself. They had other disci}'les, and when six 
111 lUtli'- ha I ]^l^s■.■d. the other disciples spoke on my lielialf, and 
t'le othei i.)gh<irs tlwii made me i.me of their sect, it having been 
lepres-iited that I hail been with them six iiiunchs. The Gara 
('pirilual guide) tluju granted me ni'tiilrd (spell or cliann). 

■■ After admission to their sect, I stayed witli them for six years, 
after which, with their permission, 1 started on a pilgrimage to 
Eadri Naraiii (this is a sacred shrine up in the hills above 
Hurdwai, at a considerable elevation, to which jiiuiis Hindus 
lesiirt), C/t /'K/i/c to which I met many of my brothcihood, i.e., 

< )ghar ami Sarbhunji mendicants, and in their ccuupauy, after a 
mouth and a half arrived at the Eadri Xavaiii mountain. For 
some \eai5 I lived by be,ggiug at the foot of the niouiitain.- 

■■ There were no houses of my liriiilari (fraternity) there, and 
T met no one whom I knew. Thence I started oil' for Aepal, 
and in due time arrived in Xepal Kas city (meaning Khatmandii), 
w here I stayed for six mouths. While there 1 received sada 
hr, •((//• fioiii the Pajah’s palace. A good number of Oghars live 

* The kos is a measure of distance varying considerably in different parts of 
thf country, but usually measuring about two Euglisli miles.— (K. E. J). 11 ) 

' ihis point i.> inlested witli fakirs ami niendicuiits of all kinds, who wait to 
catch, pious idiudus and charitably disposed persons goii^g np, for money. — 

^ ibis is a '■erm applied to the custon of giring food daily as elnrity to the 
poor, which !=■ largely done by wealthy Hindus, espceiallv in lartxe citi'^s, e < 7 ., 
Miittra, wuere 1 have often witnessed this custom with my own eye^, and anyone 



of an Aghori Fal'ir. 


345 


in Xepal territory, and I used to associate with them there. 
Thence I started on a pilgrimage to Juggariiathji (tlie sacred 
place of pilgrimage in Oris.sa), where I stayed tor ahout eight it 
ten years. 1 met only a few Oghars there. Thence I started 
on a pilgrimage to 51athura, after which I came on to Bhurtpore ” 
(a native state in Eajpiitana, where I got hold of the man. 
H. E. D. B.), “where I have been staying the last tiiteen days. 

“ ily gurus name is Hira Xath, and when I was admitted into 
this .sect, he granted me the name ot Tloti Xath, by which name 
I am always known, and now I am an Oghar. I now reeei\'e 
fo(_)d from every caste aiul tribe, and have no caste prejudices, 1 
can eat from everyone’s hand. I do not myself eat human flesh, 
but some of my sect have the power to eat human flesh and 
then make it alive again; some liave success with charms, and 
they eat the flesh of the human body, but I have not this powc-r 
as I was not successful with tlie charms. This much I do, 1 e.it 
and drink out of a human skull. I also eat the flesh of eve; v 
dead animal, with the excepti'Ui of the hor.se, which we are fu; - 
bidden to devour; all my brotherhood eat the biulie-' of all dead 
animals but the horse; this sect also eats the food of eveiy 
caste or tribe, and has no caste prejudices whatever. 

“ There are three liranclies of my sect, 1, (.)ghar ; 2, Sarbhunji ; 
3, Ghure. These all eat together and can marry with each otlier ; 
those of our sect have families. Imt .some of them are Pluthlnn 
(bachelor-'). PhahlMrs do not marry at all. We three sects can 
eat with uirliturs (sweeper caste), but never intermarry with 
them. The three sects mentioned intermarry with each other, 
but not outside. AVe res}iect Phakkars, and put great faith in 
them. Phakkars are allowed to celebrate marriages. 

“ Eor the marriage rite', — first, the day of tire wedding is 
fixed, and then on the appointed day the (Juru, a.'sisted by a 
Phiikkar (if arailablc), leads some charms ami incantations 
before the bride and bridegroom, and tlien tlie marriage becomes 
complete; iro other cciviiinnie^ are peifoinied. Then the father 
or guardian of the bride gi\is tlie biiilegrooin some cloth, a 
dead human skull, and .i rod.’’ (This is a [liece of rough stick, 
takeir from a tree fairly common out here, called '■ tejphul.’’ the 
bark of which is covered with blunt thorns. I ha\ e obtain, d 
a specimen of it, one that Ins been the property of one of these 
ascetics. H. E. 1). B.) “ AVe <■ in lia\ e admitted to our seet.mv- 

one from any c.iste or religion, w hether Alohammedan, Hindu ' r 
Christian, high nr low. Wlieii he, or she, joins our sect, and 
wishes to marry, he c.in do so into cither of the three sects of 
our fraternity. In our sect familv men c.r,- ,dso m dte disei’ples. 
AA’c believe in (lod and our but in i o other dcUii ' : we 

can >et.* at t''c dn ■'i* a ri«-h li »n-s > food being distiibutcd tj the j'oor, 

iri’espectne of caste ani creed. — (11. ii 1 j . B.) 



34(5 


H. Balfoi'R. -Z i/f Hidory 


ail lit-lieve alike. i\Iy yum has not the power of iiuikiii" a dead 
himiaa body alive after he has eaten it up, but my 'jUru’s guru 
had tliat power, he could do many other miracles. I personally 
never saw him, but have only heard of him.” 

That then is the account 'which this Apliori gave of himself 
and his sect, a de.scription having many points of interest. In 
til-" case of sn.di an outca'>t. one may say cut-caste, people it is 
a matter of gre.it difficulty to hold communication with any of 
them, vitli the \iew cd' learning about their habits and history, 
a-, they studiously avoidi contact with those not of their own 
])' i.-uasioii, except for the }uir pose of soliciting alms from the 
chaiitably disposed, or of extorting them by threats of horrible 
]a',ictices. A belief in the strict fundamental equality of all 
things., which is the ha-^T of their creed, leads to a life of utter 
self- abasement and great austerity, with the view of winning 
t'oe favour of Si\'a. Xo doubt, as in the case of Kalin Singh, 
ni,,ny. perhaps most, are luought into contact with this casteless 
eect. and become enrolled a.s members, by force of circumstances, 
a- a -icii'/’f rather, than from any original de.sire to place 

t! ciii-clves ill the lowest iank> of .society, and the sect may be 
legal. led, to a great extent, as a refuge for the destitute and the 
uii'U oce'd'ul in life; but in the days when its inuuber.s were 
Lugi and its doctiiiie.s more wide-sprearl, there may have been 
la.iin' who preferred, upon .-trictlv religions grounds, to lead the 
hre of rigid asceticism, imposed by this mendicant sect, with the 
jiinspect of a rich lew.trd in the hereafter. The pre.^eiit fanati- 
cal ascetics Lave piobublv been evolved by a process of gradual 
degiadatiun from the earlier and more philosophical w oishiiipeis 
of .Siva. 

'Jhe drinking ve.ssel of human skull, which with the staff 
c.jii-titutes their whole property, seems to be universally carried 
and used l>y the Aghori, even by those who do not pcisist in the 
luactice of eating Imman tlesli, which is permitted by their 
tcuct-s. r. B. Solvyns,* who restricts the term “ Ayauri/” to an 
outcast class of women (“ jiroscrite ”) says, “ J'eii ai iiieme connu 
mie ipii vivait avee uu riche Europeeii, et qui avait adopte les 
Usages et les manieres du ]iays de celui-ei ; niais elle ne buvait 
(lUe d.iiis une coupe faite d'un ciaue humain, garnie en or, et 
11101. tee sur un pied artistenieiit travaille.” This was picsumably 
an exceptional instanee, and the gold mounting of the skull 
howl of this reclaimed Aghori woman reminds one of the 
el.diorately decorated skull vessels of the ^Mongolian Buddhists, 
ratlier than of the rough uiicleansed skulls used hy the ordinary 
Aghori wanderers. The skull howl belonging to Moti X'ath, 
w liieh I exhibit, is cliaracteristie in not being emliellished in 


‘ “• Le= Hindous,” ISIO, ii, PI. IV. 



347 


of an Agliori Fakir. 

anv wav, the mere vault of a hiiiuan skull, not even trimmed 
and smoothed at the edges for convenience in use. (Fig. 1.) 

fvyh'.s on the Use of Human Skulls as Drinking and Libation 
Vessels hg Various Races. 

In connection with the use made by Aghoris of human 
skulls for their drinking howls, it is of interest to note, by way 
of comparison, instances of a similar custom amongst other 
races, and to give the reasons which dictate the custom, which 
is \'ery widely spread. 

In the case of the Aghori, the use of a skull for drinking 
from, originally referable to Devi-woiship, is a part of their 
practice of self-abasement, and is associated with the cannibal- 
Ftic habits permitted and encouraged by this sect of ascetics. 
Auj/ human skull will answer the purpose, and it is in no way 
material that the former owner and wearer of the skull should 
have been when living in any way connected with the Aghori 
wiio appropriates it from the dead body. In this respect the 
Aghori and Agliorapanthi diHer from other peoples who make 
u.se of skulls for these puipo.ses, and form a class by them- 
selves.* In all other instances (or nearly all) the position of 
the individual whose skull it was when living, to the user of 
the skull as a vessel, is a matter of importauLe, and in most 
c.i.'es actually dictates the custom. 

The custom of making drinking cups of the skulls of slain 
enemies is a widespread one among the more primitive warlike 
rat’ ‘S. It is associated, primarily at least, with the widely 
prevalent belief in the transference of the powers of the de- 
ceased to the living victor, who is, according to this doctrine, 
enabled to add the skill, prowess and courage of his dead enemy 
to his own. It vould seem probable that most forms of canni- 
balism owe their origin to a basis of this doctrine, which finds 
expression in numerous methods of treating and using the 
bodies, or portions of them, c>f deceased foes, which need not be 
enumerated here. The doctrine itself is natural enough when 
regarded in the light of primitive philosophy. 

< >f the Xukahivaus of the ilanpaisas it is said that “ As soon 
as an adversary had bitten the dust, the lucky warrior cut off 
tlie head of the slain, opened the .skull at the sutures, drank the 
blood and a part of the brain on the spot.” (Featherman, 

Oceano-Melanesians,” p. 91.) Kuisenstern (“ Yoy. Found 
'World,'’ 1803-t), p. 180), in describing the Xukahivans, tells 

^ We must associate with them the Saivaite sect, or subdiTision. of Kaoalikas 
(it” of Southern India, said to have been founded by Sankuracarva 

tl.e r-<t,iblislier of six fin’in-s of doctrine.” wlio derive tlu-ir name from their use 
of A hruidu ?kull a drinkinji Monier Willmms, “ Brahmanism and 

lbS7, 1 '. i:U ; Barth, ” KeUuiona of India," IbSJ, p. 



348 


H. Balfoue. — Life Historjj 


of “ barbarous scenes that are enacted, particularly in times of 
war; the desperate rage with which they fall upon their vic- 
tims; immediately tear oft' their head, and sip their bhiod out 
of the skull with the most disgusting greediness,” and he adds 
in a note, “All the skulls which we purchased of them had a 
hole perforated through one end of them for this purpose.” In 
this case the skulls do not appear to be kept for use as drinking 
vessels, wliich latter custom may be a later and improved deri- 
vative of the more rough and ready Manpiisan method of 
treating enemies’ skulls. Williams (“ Fiji,” p. 51), speaking of 
the manner in which the Fijians vere wont to boast of their 
prospective deeds of valour on the eve of battle, says. '■ Under 
the excitement of the time, indiscreet men have been known to 
utter special threats against the leader of the enemy. Shouting 
his name, they declare their intention to cut out his tongue, eat 
his brains, and make a cup of lus skull.” That this latter thuat 
was not always an empty one we may gather from the account 
given by John Jackson of a Fijian cannibalistic feasting ground, 
which he visited in 1840, and wliere he saw all the ceremonial 
observed by these natives in eating their enemies. In liis 
description of the spot, where there stood a hi'n lalou (or 
temple of a god), he say,-?, “ On the table lay two skulls used for 
drinking angona, several more lying about on the lloor.^ 

A similar use of skulls in the King.smill Islands is men- 
tioned by Angus.- He says, “ Toddy is procured from the 
spathe of the cocoanut tree, and used as an intoxicant beverage 
at their feasts, where it is served in large wooden bowls, 
from which it is handed round in small cups formed of cocoa- 
nut .shells, or in human skulls.” Mr. Graljam Balfour in a 
letter to myself mentioned having seen in L»ec. 1894, at the 
Maiiiapa of Teriri at Apemama, Gilbert Islands, a number of 
skulls of executed ciiniinal.s, susjtended from a hanging platform 
in the centre of the home, one of them being decorated with 
chains of shell money, and mounted like one of the cocoanut 
shells used for- drawing water from wells. 

The use of an enemy's skull as a drinking vessel was in 
vogue amongst the Irorpiois as evidenced in the addresses of 
Iroquois Women to the shades of departed relatives, whose 
death they would avenge, which corrtaiued the nrost tiendish 
threats to the prisorrers of war, who awaited torture and death. 
“Hiirr will I burn, and jrirt into the cauldron : Burning hatchets 
will soon be applied to his flesh . . . they will drink out 

of his skull.”® Molina ('“Hist, de Chile,” Madrid, 1795, ii, p. 

’ Erskine, “ Islands of Western Pacific,’’ 1853, p, 426. 

“ “ Poiynesi.j,” 1S66, p. 398. 

^ Tl.os. Jefiervs, “ Hist^ of French dominions in and S\ America.*' i75iX 
p. 63. 



of an Agliori Fakir. 


349 


80)* speal^s of a similar custom among the Araucanians, wlio, 
after torturing th'iir captives to death, made war flutes out ot 
their bones, and used the skulls for drinking vessels. 

In Western Africa the custom of preserving the skulls and 
lower jaws of slain enemies, or in many instances of inoffensive 
people murdered for the sake of their heads — is well kuown, 
and in some instances the skulls are turned into drinking 
vessels. Specimens of tl)e latter are, however, rare in museums, 
though both the Biitish and the Berlin iluseunis possess exam- 
ples. The two examples in the British Museum (Figs. 2 aud 3) 
are two simple calvariie, tlie lower portions of the skulls having 
been roughly broken away, leaving the edges uneven and practic- 
ally untrimmed; they come from Ashanti, but have no details of 
information as regards their exact j/vocenance, nor as regards 
their use. Brobably they were used as vessels for containing 
drink offerings presented to the fetish figures. Dr. v. Luschan,- 
describing a specimen of skull drinking bowl from Vpper 
Guinea, Togo country, says that the skull was first boiled in 
water to soften the flesh, which was tlien removed fiom the 
bones with a knife, and a well cleaned and neatly finished 
drinking cup formed from it. In Xkouya, in the T.schi-speak- 
ing country, ofterings are made at Wurupong to the princijial 
fetish Yia, to whom must be offered every year a new drinking 
bowl made from a human skull, for he does not care to drink 
from an ordinary calabash tiowl. The lu'inger of such a bowl is 
highly thought of and respected. In this West Afiican custom 
the skull is used purely for propitiation of the god, and not, as 
in the other cases mentioned, used for transferring the powers 
of a dead foe to the living victor. 

In ancient times, as we learn from Herodotus, this treatment 
of the heads taken in war prevailed amongst the Scythians, who 
always drank off the blood of the first enemy killed, and vho 
preserved tlie heads of tlieir mo.st hated enemies in the following 
manner. The skull was sawn off below the eyelirows and the 
calvaria was cleaned, and if the owner of the trophy was a j)oor 
man he covered it with leather on the outside, if he was a 
wealthy man he in addition to this lined it inside with gold ; 
the bowl thus formed was then used as a drinking vessel. Not 
only were the heads of enemies so treated, but if a Scythian 
pleader W(Ui a suit against even a relative in the jiresence of 
the king, Ids right it was to kill him and make a drinking cup 
of his skull, so that similar rule.s applied to victory in the law 
court as in war.'* Strabo,* c. B.c. 54-a.I). 24, also mentions the 

^ Quoted bVfT. Or. Boiirke. “ 9th "Rep. T?ur-au of Ethno\->(TT.’* d. 4^0. 

- “ '^'erliJinthiiiHzeii <1. Th rimer Authrop. CTesell»« haft,” 27, 1^93, p. 271. 

^ Iff rodot!'.?. “ Hi-it,.” iv, (iS. 

* Lib. YII, cap. iit, ed. iliiller aud Dubaer, IS53, p. 249. 



330 


H. Ealfoui:. — Life Histury 


ferocity of the Scythians towards strangers, wliom tliey slew 
and eat, and whose skulls they made into drinking cups, on 
which ticeount, he says, tlie Black Sea (Poiitus) was called 
Axeiius (the “ Inhospitable ”). Colonel Tod and others have 
Sought to prove that the Eajpnts, who came as a cout|Uering 
race into India, were of Scythian origin, <dting. in proof of this 
view, several customs common to both Kajputs and Scythians, 
amongst others, that of drinking blood out of an enemy's skulld 

Livy,- ill describing a successful expedition made by the Boii 
against the E-mans, says, "'A small number of the great force, 
who, making for the bridge over the river, were cut off. were 
captured, the bridge having been previously occupied by the 
enemy. There Postumiiis fell fighting with all his might 
against capture. The spioils of his body and the leailer’s head, 
which had been cut off, were carried by the Boii amid rejoicings 
tw their most sacred temple. Then having cleansed the head, 
alter their custom, they oavered' the bare .skull (calvam) with 
uoM. And this became a sacred vessel to them, from which 
they could offer lilaations on holy cliys, and this same became a 
(Innkiug ves.sel for the priest and chief people of the temple.” 
The Boii were a Celtic (Gaulish) people, who at an early date 
crossed the Alps and settled between the Eiver Pu and the 
Apennines, and who greatly harassed the Eomans during the 
tiurd eeiituiy b.c. Another ancient people, .said also to be of 
Celtic or as some say Teutonic origin, are credited by Ammi- 
aiius ilarcelliiius with drinking blood from their enemies’ 
skulls. These are the l^cordi.sci, ancient inhabitants of Paii- 
iinuia, of wIkjui it is said, “ Ho.stiis captivorum Bellonae litant 
et Marti, humanunu|ue sanguinem in ossibus capitum cavis 
bibuut avidius.” 

As another case in pioint we have the well known story of 
Alboin, who became King of the Lombards in o61 a.d. He 
w,is married to Eosiaunda fas second wife), daughter of C'uui- 
iiiund, King of tlie Gepida*. He slew his father-in-law with 
hi' own hand in a battle which nearly exteriiiinated the 
Gepida*, and in a fit of diunkenness sent to his wife a cup 
made from her father's skull, brutally inviting her to drink 
h'om it. This savage act led to his assassinatimi on .Tune 8,373, 
by an agent of his wife, Eosmunda. The Scandinavian gods 

^ Blavatstv. “Caves and .Tunnies of Hindostan,” ISOg, p. 211. Tod, “ Annals 
and Antiquities of fiajast’han ” (Rajputana), i, p. 6.S. “ Xlic R 'jput deiioiits in 

I'l.jjd. iiis oiferings to tlie 2 od of battle are s-innuinary, blood and wine. The 
i up (eupra) ot libation is tbe human skull. lie loves them because tliey are 
emblematic of the sod he worships ; and he is tauobt to believe that liar loves 
tiu'in. who in war is represented with a skull to drink tlie toenian's blood.” 

■ " Hist.,” ixiii, 24 tin 

Ihe test unes ** crfl irerp ” but better «ense is made by reading “ celavere,” 
and 1 have ventured to adopt this reading in my translation. 



of iin Aijhori Fakir. 


351 


have been by some credited with drinking out of human skulls 
at their mythical banquets in Yctlhalla, but this is, I am iii- 
tbnned by Prof. York Powell, due to a mistranslation, as no 
such statement is made in the original Saga. 

Even nearer home and in our own day the practice of using 
a skull as a drinkinu bowl is barely extinct. MitchelP men- 
tions the belief still surviving in Britain, “ that epdepisy may 
be cured by drinking water out of the skull of a suicide, or by 
tasting the blo(jd of a murderer.” He adds, “ I have known 
epileptic-' so treated.”- This notion is associated with a wide- 
spread belief in the efficacy of dead men’s skulls and bones for 
cure of epile|isy and other disorders. I’owder made from human 
skulls Wirs luuidi valued, and even moss found growing upon a 
skull was lound to be most efficacious in stopinng luemorihages.^ 

The practice of preserving the bones of deceased relatives, 
and carrying them aliout for a longer or shorter time, is 
probably associated with a kind of primitive philosophy nearly 
iikiu to that which dictates the similar practice applied to the 
bones of enemies. In the case of this treatment of enemies, 
rcoeiige seems to be only a minor incentive to the practice, 
the piimary motive heiug the desire to acquire a piart of the 
acknowledged powers of the dece.i.-ied foe, through the direct 
medium of portioii.s of his person. It is as a rule only the most 
powerful and dreaded eueiiiies who aie considered worthy of 
such post-mortem treatment, which is therefore lather compli- 
mentary to the deceased than otheiwise, as being an ackmaw- 
ledgnieut of tlie prowess and euuiage which were his cluuac- 
teristics duiiiig life, la the case of the preservation of portions 
of the bodies of deceased relatives, there is, no doubt, some 
notion of piety in the act, and also a desire to piopitiate the 
Spirits of the departed, wliich might otherwise become trouble- 
some. But, associated with these ideas there piubahlv is tlie 
docliiiie of the tiaiismission of the characteristics of the de- 
cea.'-ed to the surviving relatives, who by this means may 
inln-iit his goiid qualities and \iitues. 

Although the preservation of the skull, bones, and other 
portions ot the body of lately deceased relatives, is a verv 
videly diffused practice (I'./y., in the Andaman Islands, Society 
Islands, Siam and many other regions*^ — the practice of making 
drinking vessels of their skulls i.s of \ery limited distribution. 

^ “ The Past in the Present.'’ ISSO, p. Ie4. 

- >tA' aUo Roger's ‘‘ Social Lite in Set*tlaiid,” iii. p. 225, where the eiistoni of 
(Iribkiiig from a suicide's skull is de^L•rlbed troin Caithness and tlje neiglibour- 
liooii, 

W. G^. Black, “ Folk Medicine/’ 1SS3, p. 96. Also Gomme, Ethnoloo^y in 
Folklore.” 

‘ V Ciiolioli. “Ossa T'mare ]'f»rtate mme riec.ido o ]'t'r orramerto e usate 
Come U teii-'Lc cd Armi.” Aieli. per TAutrop. e la Etaoi /’ x\iu, 158^. 



352 II. Balfoce. — Life History 

The custom is, however, well-known in South Australia. 
Angas/ in describing the burial customs of the natives of the 
Lower Murray Kiver district, says; “The body is never buried 
with the head on, the skulls of the dead being taken away and 
used as drinking vessels by the relations of the deceased. 
Mooloo, the native whom I met near the junction of the lake, 
parted with his mother’s skull for a small piece of tobacco I ” 
He adds later, “ If the body . . . should happen to belotig 

to a warrior slain iu fight . . . after the body has remained 

for several weeks on the platform, it is taken down and buried ; 
the skull becoming the drinking cup of the nearest relative.” 
The .same author in another work- figures a skull drinkipg 
vessel used by natives about Lake Albert and along tlie Coorung 
river. He savs, “ Thev generallv prefer the skulls of deceased 
parents or other near relations, to those of strangers ' In 
reference to Mate XXXVI of the .same work, whicli illustrates 
natives of the t'uorung, he says, “The girl cairieda human skull 
in her hand, it was her mother’s skull, and from it she drank her 
daily draught of water.” E. J. Eyre,® (pioting Mr. Meyer, says 
of the burial customs observed by natives of Encounter Bay, 
South Australia, “The corpse being placed iu the tree, a fire is 
made luidenieatli. . . . In tliis situation the body remains, 

unless removed by some hostile tribe, until the flesh is com- 
pletely wasted away, after which the skull is taken by the 
nearest relative for a drinking cup.” 

All the South Australian skull drinking bowls of which I 
have seen figures, or s])ecimens, have been, with one e.vceptior, 
made by cutting away the facial portion of the cranium, leaving'; 
the entire skull vault practically intact. The single exception 
to this rule is a specimen in the po.s.session of Professor E. 
Giglioli, of Florence, which consists of the hinder portion of the 
calvaria, cut olf vertically from bregma to occiput. The skull- 
cujis are often furnished with cords for carrying them about, 
and where they are fractured or the sutures gape, the apertures 
are sto])ped with gum or “black boy,” to which are sometimes 
aftixed flat pieces of shell.^ This is seen in the specimens 
exhibiteil (Figs 4 and 5.) It was also usual to place a wisp of 
glass inside the cavity of the skull to prevent the water from 
being spilled iu carrying (Fig. 5). I have not seen it stated that 
the Australians use the skulls ot enemies for a similar purpose-. 

Herodotus' in his description of the Issedoues gives a 
passage which may possibly have reference to the custom of 

' “ Snvage Life,” 1847, i. pp 91, 95. 

- “Soiitli Australia,” Plate XXVII, Fi<:. 25. 

“ Discoveries in Central Austra'ia,” p. 34.5. 

nrfe Allgas “S. .CiistraUa," Plate XXVIT, I'ig. 25; Evre, ?.e., Plate IV, 
Fie 2"; ,1. (1. Wood. '.Vat. Ilist. ilar,” li, p. S3. 

^ “HUt.,”iv, 26. 



of an- Atjliori Fukir. 


353 

using tilt' skulls uf dead relatives as vessels. After descrildng 
iiow, when a man’s father dies, all his relatives are summoned 
to a banquet at which the flesh of the dead man is solemnly 
eaten, he goes on to say, Se Ke^aXrjv avrov •ijfL\coaavTe‘i 

KoX eKKaOjjpavre^, KaTa-^^^pvaovcrr koX eireLTa are aydXp.ari 
■^psccvTat, Ovaia^ fj.eyd\a^ eTreTeiov^ eTrtreXeoi^Tev.’ i.c., 
“ Having laid bare and cleansed the head, tliey overlay it 
with gold: and then they use it as a soc/rtl inuuji. performing 
grand yearly saeritices (to it).” There has been some question 
as to the meaning of the word ayaXp.a. Baehr translates it 
“■ sacred image,” Scliweigha.-user “ sacred ornament,” wliile 
L'H'clier renders it “ jirecioiis vessel.” Although this latter 
rendering must be regarded as a somewhat free one, it has, 
nevertheless, the support of analogy. If we niav, with Larcher, 
regard the Issedones as making a vessel or bowl of the skidl of 
a relative, and lining it with gold, this is exactly what, as we 
ha\e seen, the Scythians practised with the skulls of their 
enemies. From the geographical position, too, of the Issedones, 
in Central Asia, we might expect to find customs akin to those 
of modern central Asian Mongoloid peoples, and this use of 
skulls both of friends and enemies as drinking and libation 
bowls, often richly overlaid with gold, is one which is vtry 
fainiliar to all students of the practices of Mongolian Buddhism. 
I do not wish to press this reading of the pas.sage, but merely to 
slic'w that a comparative study of customs at any rate lends 
support to it. 

I have reserved to the. last for consideration the drinking and 
libation vessels made from human skulls used in Mongolian 
Buddhist ceremonial, because in several respects they present 
special features. 

It is now some twenty-six years since the late Professor 
(leorge Busk exhibited before the Ethnological Society an inter- 
e-ting calvaria from China,’ one which was said to have been 
looted from the Summer Palace by one of Fane’s cavalry. In a 
very interesting paper the skidl was de.sciibed, but its use was 
at that time a matter for conjecture, as nothing was certainly 
known. This calvaria, which I again exhibit (Fig G), was for- 
merly mounted in gold and set with jewels in a most elaborate 
and eostlymanner, and formed one of the most interesting exhibits 
in the Great Flxhibition of 1SG2. I exhibit also a sketch of this 
calvaria as it appeared in its glory;- it then belonged to Mr. Tait. 
t-omehow it came into the hands of a -lewish goldsmith in Hounds- 
ditch, who stripped it of its valuable gold mountings, leaving the 

^ “ Journ. Ethn. Soo.,” X S., ii. 73-83. and Plate ; also ih., p. ISO (where it 
i'S that tlie specimen m.iv have been obtained from the Lama templeof 

Hih Sze). 

- A\ aring, Masterpieces of Industrial Art,” iii, Plate 291. 



H. Eai.FOUK. — Lip: Hisfory 



bare skull-vault alone. It was obtained from him Ijy a Dr. Millar, 
who gave it to Mr. Mummery. It later found its way to the 
Oxford University IMuseum, where it tiovv belongs. I give this 
piece of history as I have been asked where this skull was now 
to be found, and I hope it has found. a permanent home at last. 
The curious and interesting designs raised upon its surface have 
been described by Dr. Busk, and I need not dwell upon them. 
"With this specimen I exhibit another also from Peking, which 
was sent to Pn.ifessor Philipps fur the Oxford ilii-eum by 
General Gibbes Eigaud (Fig- 6). It was taken from a temple u ith- 
in the precincts of a great Lama ilonastery at Peking. General 
Eigaud adds in a letter; “These cups out of which the priests 
of Buddha drink confusion to their enemies (this one was half 
full of sam.shuo. and probably a toast had shortly before been 
given to the ‘fat-faced barbarian, th.e Earl of Elgin and Ivim-ar- 
dine ’), are made as far as I could learn eitlier out of the skulls 
of rebels of the highest order, o/- tho.se of prie.st.s of such luly 

character as to obtain aftt-r death the 


3 a U 


title of ‘ Living Saints.’ M'hether 
tins be tlie skull of a saint or a 
sinner, I must ask Dr. Eolle.'ton to 


determine, to whose care I suppi se 
it may go.’’ Tliis .skull-cup is ;,Do 
inscribed with a mystic Tibetan inscription, which has not been 
quite satisfactorily deciphered, but it appears to read gra-tliad, 
with a possible play upon the word gra. which can mean an op*^n 
dish and a foe (Col. Lewin). Such ,i punning inscrip)tion would 
apply admirably to many of the skull bowls which I have men- 
tioned. This skull i.s mounted in verv much the same manner 


as the other fornieily was, Imt in a less costly manner, in gilt 
copper, surmounted on the cover with a dorje or thunderbolt. 
Such skull vessels are now very familiar in mu.seums, and 
their use in Lamaistic ceremonies has been described bv several 


p)eople ; notably by Mr. Eockhill, ’who devotes a paper t(j the 
subject.^ Several early writers on Tibet mention the making 
of driid'cing cups from the skulls of cherished relative.^. 
MTlliam de Eubruqui.s (sent by Louis IX. of France to travel 
in the East in a.d. 12.5;3) describes the Tibetans, “who had 
formerly a custom to eat the bodies of their deceased parents, 
that they might make no other sepulchre for them than their 
own bowels. But of late they have left off this custom, because 
thereby they became odious to all other nations; notwithstanding 
which, at tliis day, they make fine cups of the skulls of tlieir 
parents, to this end, that when they drink out of them, they 
may in the midst of all their jollities and delights, call tlieir 
dead parents to remembrance: this W'as told me by one that 
‘ “ Proc. Amer. Oriental Soc.” Oct. 31, 1888, pp. xxir-isxi. 



of an Afjliori Falir. 355 

saw it.”^ This tlescription reniiiiLls one of the Issedones. Eock- 
hill also quotes Fiiar Odorie, and Georni (“ Alphahetuni Tihet- 
aniaii”) to a similar purpose in regard to the Tibetans. He 
adds, however, that “ careful inquiry has failed to elicit any 
proof that Tibetans of the present day use the skulls of reveicd 
relatives as drinking vessels. A few a.'^ceties, however, do make 
use of skulls as their eating bowls . . .” “At the present 

time, human skulls are used for two pinpw.ses; 1st, as an tifferinu 
to Tsepamed who is rep>re.sented holding in his hands 

a skull filled with ambrosia, so as to call down on the giver the 
divine ble-^sing in the form of woildly prosperity : and 2iid, as a 
receivable for the wine or other li<iuid offered to the gods.” 
Eoekhill gives a tran.slatioii of an exceedingly interesting, if 
quaint and amusing, MS. IVTanual in the poisse.ssiou of a Lama 
priest, on the “iletliod for distingui'-hing good and bad skulL, 
and how, l\v offering a kapfda (Skr. skull;, to obtain worldly 
prosperity and create a wish-granting souice.” From it we may 
gather incidentally that the skull bowl (Fig. G) described by 
Profe.ssor G. Busk was one of tlie very best kind, insomuch as it 
has upon it the letter o, and other symboks. 

Colonel Yule,- remarking on the great use made by certain 
classes of Lamas of human skulls for magical cups, and iff 
human thigh bones for flutes and wliistles, says that to .sup] ly 
them with these “ the bodies of e.xecuted criminals were stored 
up at the disposal of tlie Lamas.” Eoekhill'^ tells how at 
Bat’ang, after an uprising instigated hy tlie Lamas in 1SS7, 
“The Lamas took from the grave the bones of FYtlier Brieiix', 
killed in ISSl, tilled their place with ordure, and made a 
drinking cup of his skull.” The missionaries were of eoiiise 
regarded as endn it'>i of society. 

Legend ascribe.s the origin of the use of a human skull as a 
drinking vessel to the goddess T.hamo, who is a Tibetan form rif 
Devi, the consort of Siva. Waddell^ says that “Frimitive 
Lainaism may be detined as a priestly mixture of Sivaite 
mysticism, magic, and tlie Indo-Tibetan demonolatry, overlaid 
by a tliin varnish of Mahayfuia Biiddbisni. And to the present 
day Lfimaism still retains this character.” “ Tantrism, which 
began about tlie seventh century .vd. to tinge Buddhism, is 
based on the woiship of the Active Producing Principle 
(Prnl'rifi'), as manifested in the goddes.s Kali or Iturga 
from the tenth century Tantrism has formed a most e.'^sential 
part of Lamai.sm" (p. 129). 

The legend of Lhamo, as culleil from the book “Paldau 

^ “ Pinterton’s Vovaffes/* tu, p. 54. 

” '■ Marco Polo,” i. p. 275 note. 

^ Panel of tlie Lama«.” 1*^01. p. 273. 

* “ Buddhism in Tibet," p. 30. 



356 


H. Balfoue. — Life History of an Ayliori Folir. 

Llianioi Kang Shag,” to perform confession before the venerated 
Lhamo,” a copy of wliich in Tibetan and Mongolian is in the 
liljraiy of St. Petersburg University, and as given by Emil 
Scldagintweit’ runs thus : 

“ The goddess Lhamo was married to Shinje (the judge of the 
(lead ). the King (jf the Dudpos, who at the time of the marriage 
had assumed the form of the King of Ceylon. The goddess had 
made a vow, either to soften her husband’s notoriously wild and 
wicked manners, and make him favourably di-^posed towards the 
religion of Buddhas, or, failing in her praise-worthy endeavours, 
to extirpate a royal race so hostile to his creed Ijy killing the 
children that might issue from the marriage. Unfortunately it 
w.is beyond her power to effect an impro\-ement in the evil ways 
of the king, and, accordingly, she determined to kill their son, 
who was greatly beloved by his father because in liim lie had 
lioped to put a complete end to Buddhism in Ceylon. During a 
temporary absence of the king, the goddess put her design in 
executiijn ; she flayed her son alive, drank the blood from out 
Iris skull, and eveir ate his flesh. She then left the palace, and 
set out for her mortliern home, using her sou's skin as a saddle 
for the king’s best horse.” This estimable champion of Buddhism 

represented in Mongolian Buddhist art holding in one hand 
her son's skull from which she drank, and may be seen in the 
small images which I exhibit (Figs. 9, 10, and 11), and skull 
drinking-bowls with libations or food oflerings are offered at the 
shrines of this goddess who upheld the religion. It is interest- 
ing to find ill this legend an as.sociaiion of the use of r^kulls as 
drinking-bowls with the goddess Devi, cvheii we _ recall the fact 
that the similar use of skulls hy the degraded Saivaite Aghoris 
is referred for its origin to a primitive Devi worship. 

The Dragsheds, or gods who protect man against evil spirits, 
are represented in Tibet as holding a Kapala or skull diinking 
cup in one hand, an emblem of that from Avhich Lhamo drank 
her son’s blood (Sclilagintweit, yr. 215). I exhibit also a skull-cup, 
roughly mounted Avitli a brass rim, from Darjiling, brought 
home liy Major Pi. C. Temple for the Oxford Museum (Fig. 3). 
Major Pieiuiell states that he “has seen, brought from Bootan, 
skulls that were taken out of temples or places of worship; but it 
is not known whether the motive to their preservation was friend- 
ship or enmity. It might very probably be the former. They 
were formed into drinking bowls in the maimer described by 
Herodotus, by cutting them off below the eyebrows ; and they 
were neatly varnished all over. 


' “ Buddhism in Tibet,” 1863, p. 112. 













B. T. Somerville. — Ethiiographicol Xotes in Neiu Georgia. 357 


Descrijjtion of the Figures. 

Fig ]. — Drinlving vessel made from a human caharia, used by Moti Xath, an 
Aghori Fakir of the Ogliar «ect. Obtained by Surgeon Captain 
H. E. Drake Brockman. in Eajputana, and presented by 

him to the Oxford University Museum. 

Figs. 2 and 3. — Tvo drinking or libation vessels made from human calvariae, 
from Ashanti ; Briti>h Museum. 

Fig. 4. — Drinking vessel made from the calvaria of a deceased relative; the 
sutures stopped -with black gum and pieces of shell ; South 
Australia ; Pitt Rivers Collection. 

Fig. 5. — Similar skull drinking vessel with wisp of gras-s inside to prevent the 
water carried in it from being spilled; South Australia : Christ 
Church Collection, Oxford University Museum. 

Fig. 6. — Drinking or libation vessel made from a carefully polished human 
calvaria, with designs raised upon its outer surface, formerly 
mounted in gold and jewels. Described and figured by Dr. 
George Bii'k (‘‘Journ. Ethii. Soc.,” N.S., ii, p. 73 and pi.); 
Oxford University Museum. 

Fig. 7. — Similar vessel, the calvaria lined with copper, and mounted upon a 
cop])er-gilt triangular stand, repousse and chased, with cover of 
similar work surmounted by a dorje or thunderbolt. From a 
temple withiu the precincts of the great Laina Monastery at 
Peking ; ]irest*nted to the Oxford University Museum by General 
Gibbes Riguud. 18U2. 

Fig. 8. — Lepcha priest's drinking cup ujade from a human calvaria rudely 
mounted with a brass rim set with a black pitch-like substance, 
Darjiling; presented to the Oxford University Museum by Major 
R. C. Temple. 1892 

Fig. 9. — Baked-clay and painted figure of the goddess Lhamo, illusti*ating the 
legend of her escape from Ceylon. Slie is represented riding on 
her husband’s hor?e, seated on the tlayod skin of lier son. In her 
right, lower hand. ?he hold? his skull, from whicli she tlrank his 
blood ; possibly Tibeta ; Pitt Rivers Collection. 

Fig. 10. — Bronze figure of Kali, with necklace and apron of human skulls, holding 
in right, lower hand, a drinking cup made from a human calvaria; 
India: Pitt Rivers Collection. 

Fig. 11. — Carved ivory figure of Kali, holding in the left, lower hand, a drinking 
c'up made from a human calvaria; Indian or Cingalese work; Pitt 
Rivers Collection 


Ethnographical Xotes ia Xfav Georgia, Solomon Islands. 

By Lieutenant Boyle T. Somerville, Royal Xavy. 

[with PIATES XIXT-XXXVII.] 

Ddrinc; the latter halves of the years lS9:3-94. the officers 
of H.il. Snrveyiuy Ship “ Penguin ’’ were employed in making a 
survey of the hitherto little known island, or, more properly, group 
of islands, named Xew Georgia, in the Solomon Islands, South 
Pacific ; and the following casual notes, made while camping in 
various parts in this locality during the progress of the work, 
may prove of interest. Wherever information is at second- 
hand it is expressly so stated ; the remainder is all original per- 
sonal ohservation. The various heads of information are taken 
in the order given in “ Xotes and Queries on Anthropology.” 

VOL. XXVI. 2 B 



358 


B. T. SOiiERViLLE. — Ethiioiin'jjhicnl yotes 


Geiwvcil. 

The Xew Georgian Group is peopled by mixed races, 
exhilntiiig, facially, principally Xegroid and Papuan affinities, 
but with a large range of characteristics from other parts of 
Oceania. There are trvo main languages in tlie group, Eastern 
and Western, which differ sometimes largely, and sometimes 
hardly at all ; as a rule however, Easterns and Westerns under- 
stand each other’s speech. 

Their general demeanour is fiy most white people said to be 
“ferocious,” and certainly they are inveterate head-hunters. 
Our officers, however, never experienced anything but civility, 
good temper, and occasionally kindness at their hands. The 
result of their custom of head-hunting has been to drive a 
certain proportion of “ salt water folk liack into the interior, 
where the tropical density of the luish, and maze of tracks, 
ensure their safety. I have no doubt that this hal>it, continued 
from time immemorial, has given rise to an opinion (derived from 
contempt of a foe wlio hides, rather than tight for his head) that 
“ man-bush ” belongs to a different, and insignificant race. One 
short excursion that I made into the interior apprised me of the 
fact that that part of the group, anyway, instead of being very 
sparsely populated in a few villages on the coast, as generally 
suiiposed, is, on the contrary, fairly well inhabited in the interior 
slopes and valleys of the hills where, in cptite a small radius, 
huts and clearings appeared rv. all sides in the midst of the 
bush ; ctuite invisible, however, to a jiassing sliip or canoe. 

A slight general description of the topography may be of help 
tvhile perusing the notes that follow. 

Xew Georgia consists of a group of islands, closely adjoining, 
roughly occupying an east-south-east direction for about 80 
miles, in the central soutliern portion of the Solomon Group. 
The largest island has no general native name. It has hitherto 
appeared in charts and travellers’ books as Enbiana, Kiisage, or 
Marovo. These, however, are <udy names of tliree of its 
districts, and we have, therefore, preferred in our 3ur\'ey — the 
first that has ever been undertaken — to call it Main Island, 
tlms giving preference to no jiarticndar district. 

Divided from Main Island liy a passage a few hundred yards 
broad is, to the eastward, Vfmgunu, a vast extinct v(dcanic crater, 
rising about 4,001) feet above sea level, now entirely and densely 
wooded : which has a sort of peninsula attached to the northern 
end of it; a district known asMhjiriki. Eastward a.gaiii, across a 
second pa.ssage, is the fine cone of thitukai ; and then, separated 
by a strait about one mile wide, is the small island of Mhulo, 
and the islet Kicha, which conclude the group to the eastward. 



(II Xi‘ir Geonju', hohnain Islands. 359 

To the we.--tw;;ril nf Main Inland Waiia waiia, a low flat 
coral island, oidy >eparated by a very narrow channel, called 
Hathorn Sound, wliich closes in to the Lflainond Xarrows — a 
passaue through which the tides, flooding and ebbing to the 
Kubiana lagoon, rush with great speed. 

Westw.ird of Waiia ^^nna is (.dzo, or, probably, Ivisu (Shark 
Island^, also coral, irf no great height. 

To the north-west of Main Island is Knhuid'a nija ru (King 
ITog), a sjjleiidid sliattered crater, long e.vtiuct. and said to 
now contain a great lake of water, which tiscs almost abruptly 
over 4,OU0 feet fioni the sea, presenting at all times, and 
on all sides a peculiarly hnpo.siug and .solenmly pictmesque 
landscafie of vast crater wall.s, precij>itous gullies, and strong 
slopes, made even and soft-edged witli den.se ancient forest. 

South of thewe.st end of IMain Island tliere are, first. liendova 
Island (which lias probably deriveil its name horn Idndizcotis, 
as, on acccnuit of a convenient liarl)Our which exi.st.s on its 
northern side, it has huig been a meering place for luen-of-war 
and other vessels', on the other -ide of the Blanche (.'hannel; 
which has at the iii.a-th en<l a tine volcanic cone about b,000 
feet high, tailing off into a kiiife-eilged promontory to tlie south. 
It concludes at a nari'ow strait, on the other .side of which is a 
long and hilly island, of volcanic origin, witli a brok-n coral 
shore line, called Teti]>ari. 

This conijiletcs the larger islands of the group. W'e now 
come to its most striking', and pi-obablv uniipie feature — its 
barrier islands and lagoons. 

From M’ana wami, following' the southern shore of Main 
Island to tlie eastward for a distance of aliout miles, there 
is a long chain of fiariier reef and islands, which enclo.se the 
Kubiana Lacoon. On it.s inner beach i.s built the laigest 
settlement in the group, a serie.s of village.s holding probably 
between 3, Oof) and 4.000 inhabitants, the chief of which gives 
its name to the lagoon. 

The barrier ceases here lor about 10 miles; but then, striking 
out again in a long coral tail, sweeii.s round in a series of islets 
and sunken reefs, enclosing the bay formed between IMain 
Island and Yfingunu. afterwards winding across the strait 
between Viingnnu and Giitukai, in a second chain of islands. 
From rTi'itukai, the barrier strikes rectangularly northward, 
now in a much more lemarkable form; for here the ancient 
barrier reef has been volcanically elevated two or three times — 
judging by the successive sea levels clearly marked on its 
exterior coral cliffs — and stands up, an impassable wall, 1,30 feet 
high, the top of which is densely wooded, and perfectly flat. 
At first tills wall is double, but. after 5 or 6 miles, where it 

2 B 2 



360 B. T. SoMERVit.i.K. — Ethnoijrapliii',/! Xot>’s 

sweeps round to tlie north-west, it hecoiiies 'inple again, and in 
that form follows the trend of the eoast for 40 or 30 miles, at 
distances varying from a half, to two and three miles from the 
enclo>ed land. The whole of the lagoon thus formetl is 
sprinkled with a myriad reef inlets. Hat-topped, wooded, and 
usually ahout 90 feet high. 

Access to this enclosure is possible by narrow deep passages, 
which break the barrier wall every 4 or 3 miles, through which 
the tide^ swiftly run : and having entere<l by one of these, ships 
that have good turning-power may, in several places, find deep 
channels between tlie innumerable reefs that encumber the 
lagoon, leading up to the small native .settlements on the main 
lamb To look down upon the lagoon from the summit of any 
of the hills of the large islands i.s to have spread before one the 
strangest and most pictufesiiue scene imaginable. The splendid 
luxuriant liush close round forms a foreground of the highest 
interest, edged at the water line by the white sand, or daik green 
mangroves of the coast, with perhaps a bi-own thatched native 
rdliage standing among its coconut p.dms. and canoes plying 
about beyond on tlie calm water 

The middle distame is filled with the laguon itself, dark blue 
in the deep>. pale blue in tlie shallows, light brown over the 
labyrinthine reefs — a tea.st of colour — set aliuut with islands, 
islets, and locks, in uiics.iuntable varietc, each bearing a minia- 
ture forest. And there, bounding them in, the great green 
snake of the Tomha — the barrier island cliaiii — unnatural pieces 
ot belli land. 3 Hides long, -hJP yards wi'ie, twi-thig this way 
and that, until the winding tail is lost round the last headland 
of the wild volcanic lulls, in the sea mist of the surf, lieaten to 
foam oil its i iiiter eilge, <hitside, the suddenly deep ocean, with 
its wave crests, and continual swell, l•al■l■ying the eye back to the 
far liorii^ou. where faintly sliows the hilly outline of Ysabel Island. 

This is the edev,- from the shaip summit of iM.-irovo. a hilly 
island only slightly detached from the coast in the eastern 
lagoon, which, as it was in old times the most po])ulous and 
agreeable to trade at of any of tlic places near by, w,is a good 
deal visited by traders and others. From this early cointmmi- 
cation it has given it.s name (Marovo) to all Xew ( leorgia on 
the older charts. It was in the vicinity of this part of the 
group that T was encamped during three months of 189-T and 
five months of 1894, .shifting from island to island in the lagoon, 
as I worked westward. It is, accordingly, the Eastern, or 
Marovo dialect that I understand best : and all the native words 
contained in this paper belong to it. This is unfortunate ; as by 
far the most prosperous, populous part of Xew Georgia now- 
adays is the western part, the Rubiana district; and of this the 



in Xeic Georgia, Solomon Islands. 


361 


language and customs are no doubt — tlie language is certainly 
— a good deal different to the Eastern. Perhaps some da\’ both 
may be rescued from the advancing oblivion of civilisation. 

Cloth iny. 

A small loin cloth, very similar to the Fijian nioro, of a rough 
sort of tappu, cohjured usually brownish red or dark blue, 
constitutes the sole clothing of the males. It is perfectly 
modest, and offers strong contrast to the grotescpie faslrious of 
the Xew Hebrides. Both boys and girls adopt costitme at a 
very early age — I should .say at about four or hc e, sometimes even 
earlier. The tapya is made of se\'eral sijrts of bark ; leal hi, 
he rekoto, hoiivg the two must u>iial. These two have a naturally 
reddish colour ; another sort is white, aiul this one is often dyed 
entirely blue with wild indigo. This is chiefly done in FsaViel, 
the New Georgia women i)eiug said not to understand the 
colouring process. Tlte method is similar to that in use else- 
where: the bark is drieii, then soalmd in water, and hammered 
with a mallet {limo limv). This mallet is of circular section, 
and is riblied on the outside. I’.aik clotli is usttally made by 
women, but lueii would make it if uece.ssarv. 

In New Georgia, the man s wtap)>er ealled iiili'tngoiidoiie/ona') 
is often of trade caUcC). and fashion connaaiids that it should be 



XATITE WBIHIXG SUNSH^DF. 



362 B. T. Somerville. — Ethnoijraplikal Notes 

of a material of a single colour— preferably blue. Patterns or 
stripes of bright colours are invariably spoken of as “ -woman’s 
calico.'’ Those -u’ho can afford it, l>iud additional strips of 
turkey red twill, with white and blue calic'-i, over the hips iii 
neat ornamental liand?, sundounted Ijy a string of large beails. 
A sunshade i-^ commonly worn on the head ; a sort of crownless 
cap, with a broad srpiare-shaped “peak” made of basket work : 
but European hats, and, iinleed garments of all sorts, are in 
great demaiul ; though, with the e.vception of hats and shirts, 
seldnin worn. 

The women wear a loin cloth, >iinilar in form to that of the 
men, but at the liack it is padded out to form a large triangular 
cushion, apex downward, with an abrup)t ledge 6 inches wide at 
the top, upon which mothers fre<pientlv carry their babies. This 
cushion is the receptacle of all the calico and other valuables to 
which they can lay claim. 

Ornohienk. 

The most striking ornament in Xew Georgia is t.he large 
ear-ring. A piece is cut out of the lolie of the ear during early 
youth, and the ring of flesh thus formed is gradually increased 
in circumference Iw the iimertion of a strip of hanana-leaf 
which, wound like a watcli spring, keeps the lobe perpetually 
distended. Eventually a circle of wood occupies the hole: or. 
as I have seen, a disc of el.>ony iidaid with mother-of-pearl, 
sometimes even a circular trade looking glass. The largest that 
I measured was 4 inches in diameter. 

The women have the same custom : but I never saw one 
with so large a ring as tlie men wear. It is usually worn hy 
the young unmarried of either se.x ; the elder married folk are 
only occasionally seen with it. The septum of the nose of the 
elder men is often bored, hut the fashion of wearing an orna- 
ment in it has apparentlv died, as we neversawa nose ornament 
inserted in any case. 

Xearly every man wears round his neck an ornament of 
pearl shell or clam shell of many and various patterns, ipiite 
irrespective of tribe, in which the fi'igate bird { iiihelema), nearly 
always figures, with half moons, and circles witli a curious fret- 
work pattern in the centre. Tliese are usually hope, or amulets, 
and occasionally difficult to procure. 

Ornamental combs are worn in the hair, but very rarely; 
and never that I saw, of careful make. 

The hair is carefully lookeil after, especially in Biibiana, and 
trained to a shock of curls rigorously bleached with lime, -which 
causes it to be of a colour varying lietween that of Manilla 
hemp, and ordinary rope yarn. The point of hair on the 



in iSieir Georgia, Soloinon Islands, 


363 


temples, and the triangle terminating in the centre of the back 
of the neck, is shaved off (modernly) with European knives ; 
but it is often still plucked out in the old method 1 )etween two 
edges of a cockle shell. By these means the top of the head 
appears as if covered with a circular mat, and this idea carried 
to an extreme is seen also in their carvings of Manggota' or other 
“ debbkunir.’' Alight circular framework, like the brim of a hat, 
is sometimes worn to support the lower edge of this shock of hair. 

When in mourning, the hair is cropped close and whitened, 
and the face shaved to a small patch of hair on the chin ; this 
is done at the funeral feast. 

In the Bussell Islands, a little cluster of islands of the soutli- 
east corner of New Georgia, wliite wigs of some cotton-like 
material are made, which are in use among the bald ; or also, 
as it was explained to me, “ all o’ same hat.” 

The fashion in Vieards is curious, the hah- being sha\-ed 
or plucked out, leaving only a small tuft an inch or so long in 
the middle of the chin, supported by a narrow ridge of closely 
curling tufts, well limed, which follow the contour of the jaw- 
bone up to the ear. 

Chief's Keel'lare. 

Ingova, the king of Biibiana. wore an ornament round his 
neck, the sign of chiefdom, and a great '• /mpc.” He had a 
similar one made, and presented it to Mr. Kelly, a trader Imng 
near his place, as a token of his good will. He told him that 
his possessing it was an absolute safeguard on his life. I had 
the opportunity of closely examining Mr. Kelly’s, which, though 
smaller, was a facsimile of that of Ingova. It consisted of a 
very carefully made ring called eringi, with a snuare section, 
about 4 inches in diameter, of a beautifully grained and tinted 
piece of clam .shell ; it looked like a tine piece of ivory. This 
was suspended round the neck by means of a Hat strip of finely 
plaited grass, stained crimson, which was carefully “worked 
over” one-third of tbe ring (in a method known in the naval 
world as an “ Elliott’s eye ’’). The lower part of the ring, being 
thus left bare, was ornamented with a close fringe of opossum 
teeth bound together Avith string, tinv holes being bored in the 
ring in order to ,supi)ort it ; and, be.sides this, had three big 
flat tassels of trade beads hanging down from it at regular 
intervals. Some rings have these tassels and teeth secured to 
a flat piece of turtle shell, which is bound at the back of the 
iringi. The whole ornament when worn hangs below the 
breast bone, and is exceedingly handsome. 

' Manggota = “of, or connected with Manggo, ’ under “Religion and 
Taboo,” p, 384, 



364 


B. T. Somerville. — Ethnogrophiml Eotcs 


The almost invariable ornament on the arms is a shell ring 
{hokato.). These, indeed, represent money to a certain extent , 
and are in use among the traders in barter for coconuts, etc. 
One place, Bill, at which I was camped, seems to have been 
a great emporium for their manufacture. I have sent to the 
O.xford mu.seum specimens exhiluting the whole process, which 
is as follows. A suitable piece of a large clam shell (tndacna 
giqas\ native name, indnla) is cho.sen, and roughly broken 
round to what is to be about the size of the outside diameter. 
This is then taken and ground down with sand and water till 
its outer edge is nearly circular, and free of irregidarities. 7’he 
native drill, to be described later, is iie.xt brought to bear, and 
with it a series of closely adjoining boles is bored, making a 
circle round the centre of an inch or so in diameter. A piece 
of a wiry creeper is next taken, introduced into one of these 
holes, and, by using it like a fret saw, in conjunction witli sand 
and water (preferably tie.-'h), the eouiidete centre block is cut 
out. 



I'VO NATtVEo OF XEW GEOHtrlA. 


Tlie ring is now placed on a stick of hard w<jod or .stone 
(the latter shaped someivliat like the sharpening stone of a 
scythe), and the central hole is gradually ground out larger and 
larger ui)Ou it, still with sand and water, until the ring has 


i'll Kciv Georgia, Solomon Islands. 


365 


acquired the proper internal diameter. The completed rough 
article is then smoothed and poli-^hed with tine sand and a 
piece of bamboo, until both inside and outside have the proper 
finish. These rings are made large enough to go over the upper 
arm, and are ground fiat on the inside but semi-circular on the 
outside, and are altogether about lialf-an-inch in thickness. A 
man may make one such ring in about two days, if he keep at 
work. Finger rings both of shell and tortoiseshell are also 
made and worn. 

A man in full dancing dress wears as many rings as he can 
get on either arm. 

"Wdien in mourning, a string of native cold is worn round the 
neck, wrists, and ankles, sometimes also in two diagonals across 
the chest. I have seen, liesides, the Ijowl of an old tobacco 
pipe attached to the string worn on the neck, containing tlie 
little finger nail of the man wliose deatli was mourned. 

JVtintini/ and Tdtooiinj. 

The only paint used on tlie body is lime, and that only in 
thin lines on the face, called ndaisapvndi'ri. These are usually 
three in number, one across the eyebrows from tenqde to 
temple, one round the contour of the jawbone over the whisker 
before described, and one carried on from the temples over the 
cheek bone, ending at tlie bridge of tlie no.se. 1 could never 
learn the meaning of these lines, l-.ut they seemed to be con- 
sidered part of full dress; visitors, for instance, from one village 
to another, or even to our camp, always wore them : and after 
bathing the natives were careful to nii.\ up some lime from 
their limepot, and put on the usual lines. 

There i' no tattooing in Xew (leorgia. but raised cicatrices are 
very common; the design is ahuo.st invariably a frigate bird, or 
porpoise, or both : and appiears im the top) of the shoulder, 
.shoulder blade, breast, and thigh. Tt mav be worn on all of 
these at once, the piorpioise occurring more n-ually on the thigh, 
and the frigate bird on the shoulder; .so that I have thought it 
may have some reference to the desire to have the ptorpaoise’s 
strength and endurance in the leg-' for s\\ imming, and that of 
the frigate bird’s for the arms. Some natives will tell you that 
this adornment is allowed onlv to the sons of cliiefs ; but I have 
it on the authority of lleta, himself a chief, that iinvbody might 
wear one ; and I saw many men thus marked who certainly 
were not chiefs. It is done during youth to one another 
by the boys, with a knife or a sharp) --hell. 1 lid not see 
enough of the women to say whether they emp)loy this decora- 
tion or no. One chief told me that his cicatrices had been 
done by a girl, when he was young. 



366 


B. T. Somerville. — Ethnographical JSfotes 


Hahltatiuns. 

Tlie houses are unit'ormly constructed of wood and cliatch, and 
divide themselves into tn'o clas.ses: the Erno,or big canoe liouse, 
and Pula fii/iiia. or small living house. 

Erno . — The primary object of this form of house is to form a 
shelter tbr war-caiioes. anil some are solely used for this pur- 
pose : there is. however, in each village a large house of this 
desciiption employed as a living house for the chief and Ins 
family, constructed a- follows : — 

Tliree or more strong posts are stuck into the ground, one of 
whicli is '■Hop'.” or .sacred, and has a figure carved on it, 
u-sually lieariug a threatening attitude. Sometimes, in fact, 
gmierally, this carved figure is seen in connection with one of a 
conventionalized .shark or an alligator; as often as nor, it is 
held in its moutlt. One post that I saw was cut from a tree with 
a crooked hough, and tliis had been utilized to represent the 
arm of the figure; the hand held a carved revolver (!) pointed 
for firing. Bound tlie foot of the po.st there is usually a heap 
of small piece.s of dead coral, and a wreath of dead leaves is 
secured round the post itself ; both wreath and coral heap have 
stuck all about them every imaginable, and unimaginable 
article — broken tobacco pipes, ru.sty and worn out trade axe 
heads, pieces of rusty trade knives, bits of paper, shells, old 
wine bottle'', broken shell ring.s; in fact, anything broken, rusty, 
and iio longer of use in the world of men. is dedicated to this 
house god. 

The whole ]iost is sometimes carefully patterned and coloured. 
The top of these main posts is cut with a semicircular mortice 
in wliicli re-it!' the ridge j'ole, a stout spar extending the wliole 
lengtii of the hon.-.e, and two corresponrling parallel spais rest 
on several slmrt pole.s stuck into the ground at the de.sired 
width of the house, at eipial distances from the I'idge pole, 
forming eave poles, the.se latter uprights being not more than 
4 or .'i feet high. Seveml big miters ma<le of trimmed poles 
are now lashed on with split cam-, or strong creeper, between 
the ridge and eave poles: and then, between these, a great 
number of smaller ones, about <> or ,s inches apart. Over the.se 
rafters goes the thatch, which consi.sts of rod.s 6 to 8 feet long, 
with strips of ivorv-pjalm leaves, or of a certain pandanu.s leaf, 
bent diagonally across it. and then stitched with a piece of split 
cane ; thus making a .sort of tile of leaves, 6 feet long by 2 feet 
wide. The.se are secured by a lashing to the rafters, beginning 
at the eai es, and in a well thatched hou.se are no more than 
4 or 5 inches apart. The inside appearance of these overlapping 
tiles is extremely elegant, and, except in a cyclone, they are 



i/i Xi ic Georgia, iiohnaon Islands. 367 

absolutely water-tight, and remain so for probably five or six 
years. At the gable end, the edging fronds are arranged neatly 
parallel to one another, and boimd do\vn to prevent Happing. 
The gable wall is not peipendicular, lint leans outward, the 
ridge pole being longer than the eave poles. It also is 
thatched in a similar fashion to the roof, and occasionally ha.s 
a pattern .stitclied on it with split cane over the thatching. At 
about the height of a man, a curved porch is contrived, which 
concludes the gable thatching above described : and is at such 
an angle as to prevent rain front beating into the house. If 
the house is only for canoes, there is no pjorch, but a long slit is 
carried up the gable wails to allow the immense ornaiueutal 
prows of the war canoes to pass tlirough ; the lower part is 
closed in witli a temporary thatch, and a sguare doorway is 
made to give access to the interior. 

Palacunua . — The smaller houses — Palaatnua . — are built of 
the same material as the Ervo, but are guite small, and in 
appearance like the roof of an European house placed on the 
ground, with a doorway in the gable at one or both ends. 
There is usually a platform of sticks laid side by side, forming a 
sort of attic, about o feet from the ground, on which various 
household utensils are kept, but detached wooden hooks are 
also employed for hanging things on. I would note the custom 
of keeping the skulls of any animal eaten ; these may usually 
be seen inside the Imuses, threaded on h>ng sticks. They 
Consist, for the most part, of opossum, turtle, and frigate bird 
skulls, and are kept either merely for ornament, or as a brag- 
ging record of former fea.sts and good living. I think that 
perhaps the custom has also some “ religious " meaning. 

The sleeping arrangements consist of a platform of sticks 
(similar to the “attic" above mentioned^, just raised off the 
ground, with a piece of matting, or more commonly, a plaited- 
up coconut frond; tlie neck lests on a rouml billet of wood for 
a pillow. 

The fireplace is usually near the open end of the house, to let 
the smoke escape, but there appears to be no particular spot for it. 

In Xew Georgia the unmarried men do not sleep in a separate 
manV house, as so commonly elsewhere. In the chief’s, or 
canoe, house there are generally a succession oi bed rooms built 
along the side.s under a sort of Hat roofe<l e.xtension from the 
eaves, (piite small and low, with only Just sleeping room for one 
or two. These are occupied by the wives of the chief, b}- his 
immediate relathjns, married and single, and also by visitors. I 
am informed that in Ifubiana, the cliief (Ingova), has a big house 
with separate large rooms like an European house ; perhaps the 
idea is only borrowed. 



368 


B. T. Somerville. — Ethnognipliicul Notes 


In the smaller houses the divisinn between married and 
sinole may be by the platform aliove mentioned, but otherwise 
I could see none. Tlie boy eliiklren certainly sleeji on it. 

Natural caves, and overhanging elitfs, are used a.s dwelling 
places. Near a spot called Bill there was quite a large village, 
built with mats, etc., in tlie shelter ot an ancient sea water- 
line, which had been scooped out of the perpendicular coral 
cliff by the sea when it was at tliat level in ages gone by, to a 
depth of 10 and 12 feet ; and being afterwards volcanically 
upheaved, it is now 10 feet above the present high water mark. 
This curious undercliff pa.s.sagc e.xteiid.s for nearly a mile round 
the sea-face, varying in lieigbt from 10 to -j feet, and mat- 
houses liad been built in its -belter at varioii.s positions. Water 
dripped in many places from the nnmerous stalactite.s in the 
roof of this .strange place, and was collected in basins cut by the 
inhabitants in the c-'in'esponding stalagmites, or in large clam 
shells, which had become cemented to tlie heaps of stones on 
which they rested by the drippings of the calcareous water 
from above. Close to tliis village wa.s an odd coral islet called 
Totelavi, wdiich, being circular, with Hat cliff .-ides, crowned by 
a tuft of trees, strongly resembleil a huge flower pot .standing 
on the sea-reef. The flat foothold uuiud the ha.se of the islet 
wa.s iucuiisiderable in extent, ami the house.s therefore were 
almost altogctlier built in an niKleivut in the clitt, similar to that of 
Bili just de>cribed. There was one .-pot in the elift' wall where, 
by means of a rough ladder, one could .scramble to the top of 
this coral Wock ; and liere, in the huge houeycoiuh ]')its of the 
cruinhling surface coi-al, among the regetation which throve 
over all of it, a coign ot safety miglit he found when head- 
hunters Were on the Hack ; and there was nl-o a -mall hut 
built there, to atford more -uhstautial shelter when a raid was 
expected. 

There were small .-qnare reces-cs ^ ut in the coral clitf above 
the rock houses, wliicli coiitaiiual -everal -kulls, :lie la.st relics 
of the “ rude tnrefathers of the hamlet. ' 

fhher hiiihlings in New ( leoruiii which de.scia i- laite are the 
piers, both stone ami wo(jd. which, uith tin tie puiuls, may 
usually he found abreast of any seashle house. 

i’he wooden pier.s are very temporary attairs, a framework of 
light strong 'oranelie.s .stuck in tlie eliiuks of the reef, atrd 
lashed with creeper; hut tlie others are formed of coral-stones 
oft the reef built up, hut without mortar of any soit. to the 
desired height. In spite of their loo-e con.struction they appear 
to last for a coirsiiierahle time. The top i.s usually made fiat 
and comfortable for walking upon, with eaith laid in the chinks 
of the stones. Turtle ponds, formed of similar masonry, 



i)i jVi'i'' Gt'iii'ijw , Solijitiini 


;^69 


enclosing a small, roiiglilv eirciilar space, llie tide ebbing aud 
flowing through the chinks, are also constructed. At Munggeri 
there was a house built on a masonry platform a little distance 
from high water mark, which was cpiite surrounded hy the sea 
to a depth of 2 or 3 feet at liicli tide. 



CAKOE HOV'E. MCNOOnO. WITH ^il.AI.L " nOtSF. ’’ COSTAIV'IS’O A SKCLt 
IN Fi>Ht.lTROf.VD 


.V/l riifilf i'}ll . 

The canoes of New (ieorgui aie built, as iu the rest of the 
Solomon Islands, ou the Tlalay model, with high prow and 
stern post. Xothiug can exceed the beauty of their lines, 
and carefulness of build — considering the Jneau.s at disposal 
— or their ^wittue^'S when properly projielled. They are a 
most a.stoiiisliiuL; levelatiou i>f scientitic art in a people little 
removed from i-mnplete savagery. These gvacefvil boats are 
of all sizes, from that of the oue-inaii." of 8 feet long, to 
the great war l■aIloc. or tiiinnh,. of 40 to 50 feet, which will 
hold perhaps tliirty-Kve men. Whatever the size, they are 
all built on the same lines, and in the same manner. The 
accompanying sketch gives an idea of the distrihution of the 
planks and the way in which they are butted together. (In a 
racing cam.ie there are, I am informed, many more pieces than 
ustially emjih'ivod and planed much thinner', and the boat is 
narrower for its length than in the ordinary model.) The 
plank.s are planed down to about half an inch iu thickness or 
even less, but leaving in the centre of each a -strengtheniug rib, 
which projects about three-quarters of an inch along the whole 



370 


P>. T. SoMEUYiLLE . — Eftiiiogi apliic'd Notes 


leiiiitb. The two coriespoudiug pJauk? of opposite sides of the 
futuie canoe are jdaeed together and heiit between posts struck 
into the ground at the necessary ciuve, and when each pair 
of planks has thus received its proper heiid. the whole boat is 
stitched togetlier with a three-plait of eoconiit fibre, nv of >onie 
“ bii.sh ” material, througli hole- bored about 2 inches apart, 
along the sides of the planks. Tire .seam is then caulked with 
a white .sticky substance ( T’/hn obtained from the egg-shaped 
fruit of the Parinuriit I'n'i'iiivin) by rubbing its surface with a 
rough piece of stone. This substance, at first white and sticky, 
becomes when dry, Idaek, and nearly a.s solid as pitch, and 
makes the boat watertight. It must Ire kept under shelter 
from rain during the hardening process, which takes from a 
week to ten days, according to weather. The shape of the boat 
is preserved by half a dozen strong ribs, each cut from a single 
piece of wood, the centra] one being much stronger than the 
remainder. At the places where the ribs are to be secured, the 
mid rill of the planks is left niucl) tliicker ibra few inches, and, 
by meaiic of a stout cane lashing, pa.ssing round the rib and 
through two boles in this e.vtra piece, the sides of tlif- lioat are 
kept together. 



Close to the ends, wliere the boat Ls not luoie tiiaii •'! or 4 
inches in width, tlie two side planks are hound together with 
two or mure neat “.seizings” of split cane thiongh .-imilar 
chocks on the ribs. Both ends are pointed, and though there 
is a difhneiice between how and stern, it is not observable to 
the untrained eye. Tliere is no decking, even to the hugest 
canoe, hut the paddleis sit on small fiat pieces of wood on the 
bottom, or raised like thwarts in the larger sizes of boats. One 
has to he careful that the.se seats re.st on tlie pJank mid-rihs, 
and not on the planks themselves. In the war canoes tliere is 
in the centre a sort of platform of stick.s, .similar to those in the 
houses, on which to place the heads of the slain, or to carry 
tood and other things upon ; and there are also wooden crutches 
at intervals along the length of the boat, to support spears, 
fishing rods, etc, ; exactly fiiling the purpose of “ boom irons,” in 
a naval pulling launch. 



1)1 iVeiu Crt'or jta, Siiloiduii Islands. 


371 


The bow and stern of all the war eaiioesj and somethiies 
also of the smaller canoes, are beantitully patterned with inky 
work of mother-of-pearl, and a string of porcelain cowries is 
secured all the way clown the great prows. On the top of the 
prows of the war canoes there is usually a carved figure, the 
commonest being a Ktsahj — to be described later — while the 
small canoe.s often have some fanciful design, such as a butterfly 
with hovering wings, a cockatoo, etc., carved and coloured. All 
canoes are invariably stained black outshle, while the inside is 
uncolonred. Low down on the prow above the water line the 
head and .shoulders of iX'‘fhhhJtdehhli imi'” (called T’cfo/s// ?') is sus- 
pended •- it is so placed as to dip in the water in front of tlie 
canoe. 

The function of this Totoishii is to keep off the Ke.-iolo, or 
water fiemls, wliich might otherwise cause the winds and 
waves to overset the canoe, so that they might fall on and 
devour its crew. This figure {'Idoishu) has a more or less 
human face, of malevolent, and extremely prognathous C(jnnten- 
auce;the nose and chin being almost at a right angle to the 
curious pointed head, the chin resting on his two closed fists. 
Just above this figure a small tablet of wood is hung. It is 
coloured in red and white, and has a curious resemblance to 
an Egyptian hieroglyphic tablet. A large canoe takes about 
two years to build. 

Tla: haler in the smaller canoes is roughly made of a 'oanana 
leaf, stitched somewhat into the shape of a small coal-scoop 
witlioiit a handle ; I believe that the same shape, but in wood, 
is used in the bigger boats. 

The paddles of Xew Georgia are a good deal diflerent to 
those of the neighbouring islands, having a long loom, a short 
broail Wade, and a crutch handle. A man’s paddle is a fathom 
long, a woman’s about 4 feet. Xo steering paddle is used, 
the steersman working his paddle on either side as necessary. 
Whezi underweigh, a perfect and rapid stroke is kept, the 
paddles are worked solely with the hands, without the aid of a 
rowlock. Mr. Kelly informs me that to catch a crab." ot- 
iose stroke in a war or racing canoe is considered an unpardon- 
able offence ; and a man wiio had done so twice in one dav was 
straightway lauded from an expedition which was just setting 
out from lUibiana, and came to live on his ( Mr, Kelly's) islet 
until the affair had been partly forgotten. Tlie same inrorinant 
also tells me that a well-manned racing canoe will keep up a 
speed of seven or eight knots an hour, for over an hour. I can 
certify that it took our steam launch, going at about that pace, 
two hours to catch one of them up. 

I can give no inforiuatiou alauit native sails, as sails of 



372 


]>. T. SOMEKVILLE. — Ethnoijrcqthical Notes 


European calie(j and cut, usudlly with a sprit, are now 
invariable, the mast being stepped near the centre of the boat. 

The ceremonies attending the launch of a new canoe are often 
terril de, as described by i\Ir. C. M. Woodford, in “ A Xaturalist 
among the Head Hnnteis. 

I never saw any of these functions ; but Mr. Kelly told me 
that in Enbiana, among other ceremonies, two \drgins are 
selected — one of whom is puV>licly violated, while the other is 
“ Hope:' or tabooed, and i.'. kept a vestal for fifty months : a 
guard is placed over her ; and death is the penalty should she 
transgress. 



S-llIYE WllH CANOh, SHOWING '■ lOTOISlIC.” 


Sirimmimj. 

The Kew Georgia native^, except the younger folk, are not 
much given to swimming or diving, unless of necessity ; they 
swim on their faces, reaching out with one arm at a time 


ill Xew Georgia, Solornon Islands, 


373 


"When diving, they jump into the water feet first, recover them- 
selves, and then draw breath before going quietly under. They 
remain under water without distress for a long period. I neve - 
timed one, but I should say that a minute’s duration was C|ui:e 
an ordinary time to stay under ; and they will keep coining up 
after such an interv-al for a breath, while working imiler water, 
u'ld immediatelv dipping under again while picking up fish 
blown up with dynamite, gathering pearl shell, or as happened 
to me once, clearing a rope which had fouled the propeller of 
my steamboat. I have seen them keep this up for ten minutes 
and more at a time, and they could probably do so for much 
longer. 

At many of the seaside villages a bamboo “ Eiffel Tower,” 
is erected to a height of 20 to 30 feet on the deep water edge 
of a fringing reef. The youngsters climb to the top, and then 
jump off face downwards with a yell, with arms and legs c.ll 
spread-eagled out ; but just before reaching the water they 
straighten up, and go in perpendicularly, with feet first, and 
arms close to the side. 

Weaving and Basletiroi’h, 

I believe the art of weaving to he quite unknown in Xew 
Georgia. I never saw nor heard of its practice, but basket- 
work of the flexible variety is common, some villages having 
a monopoly of the trade. I regret I can give no descripti(.)n 
of the manufacture, never having seen it done, but the baskets 
are almost always small and circular, without handles (some 
have flexible handles woven in after the completion of the 
basket), and sometimes ornamented with a bunch of the strands 
hanging in a circle from the bottom of the basket. (The 
native names of two of the materials are mare and hcngi.) 
Baskets, are, as a rule, of one colour ; but patterns in red ami 
buff, of a geometrical design, are quite common, and indeed tlie 
plain one-colour baskets are usually plaited with a pattern of 
the same colour in the stitcliing. The red staining is done with 
the seed of a big tree, common enough in some j'arts of the 
bnsli ; which produces, on pressure, a bright scarlet dye 
{Mlil(sa'). 

These baskets are almost solely used for containing the lime 
and betel, pipes, tobacco, fish-hooks, shell rings, and the 
hundred other uncousidered trifles that a Xew Georgian 
invai'iably carries about with him. It is like a schoolboy’s 
trouser pocket for variety and uselessness of its contents, and is 
the first place to hunt in for “ curios.” The baskets are slung 
over the shoulder by a cord stitched or woven, as before men- 
tioned. into its opposite sides. They Vary in size from alrout 15 

VOL. XXVI. 2 c 



374 B. T. So^iEVA’iLLV^.—EHiiioffirq^hical Xotcs 

inulies to 5 inches in diameter, and from 10 to 5 inches in 
de]>th. 

The lave lave, or shields, are also made of basket work. In 
Xew Georgia as far as I could discover, these are made in one 
village only — Pundolona — and are now exceedingly difficult to 
procure, at least we found them so. 

They are of a long elegant shape, and so strong and closely 
wan-en that they will easily turn a spear thrust. The same odd 
pxrttern appears on all of them, stained in black after the .shield 
is made, and not woven in at the time. It is carried with the 
■smaller end up by a padded handle at the back, and the hand- 
hole is often further protected by a piece of turtle shell, or 
several pieces of a large leaf, stuck laetween it and the back 
of the shield. There is a small feather plume stuck into the 
top. 

In the other Solomon Islands beautifully fine plaited work in 
ye' low and red appears on the spears, combs, and other articles ; 
but I saw none in Xew Georgia that was indigenous. 

For gardening purposes, or the carrying of pigs, or coconuts, 
a coconut leaf, with the fronds plaited up, is employed ; these 
cut into two halves by splitting the mid-rib of the leaf, are also 
scattered about in the huts to sit on, or to form partitions, etc. 

String. 

String is made of materials found in the bush, and is both 
tlu’ce-ply, two-ply, and three-plaitml. It is not spun into 
yarns, but just rolled on the thigh, “ hove up ” into string, and 
then given the reverse motion to keep the lay taut. It is of all 
sizes, from about one inch in circumference, which is used for 
turtle nets, and is stained deep brown, to a fishing line so tians- 
I'areiit and delicate that it looks like the finest gut, and is used 
for catching small fry with. 

Xefs . — The turtle nets are made with a needle which is just 
a long shaped reel holding the cord, and the mesh is a fiat 
piece of wood almost always ornamented with a carved bird. 
'The hitch used in netting is exactly the same as ours — not the 
‘‘ -slippery” one. The net is weighted with stones, which have 
a hole bored through them, and the floats are joints of bamboo, 
or lumps of wood with a '‘(lehhlevrn ” kneeling or squatting on them 
Uccasionally they assume a conventional form, which is called 
Ij'-pelc, or “ butterfly.” 

Nets are made of all sizes of mesh, the turtle net being about 
a G-inch mesh, while the nets which are sometimes used in place 
of a basket for carrying betel and lime, etc., are of fine strong 
■white or brown twine, and with a mesh about the size of a 
drawing pencil. 



hi Xcif Georgia, Soloriun Islands. 


375 


Pottery. 

Pottery is, so far as I know, nnknown in Xew Georgia ; nor 
have I eitlier seen imported ware from other islands, or heard 
of broken pieces tliat had been dug up. 

Probably this art has never been practised. 

Dyeing. 

The favourite colour is red ; used to stain basketwork, carved 
work of canoes, etc.: it is procured from the pips contained in 
the nut case — very much resembling a beech nut, which comes 
from a large tree in the bush of the native name of rnhusa. A 
blight blue is obtained from the wild indigo, which is bruised 
up with lime and water, and is used in dyeing bark-cloth. 

There is a yellow colouring, also obtained from a plant. I am 
unable to say of what species. 

Black is obtained from wood-ashes mixed with water ; a better 
staining is procured from a particular black clay, known as noii, 
which is found, as far as I know, in one place only, near the 
head of Piongo Ombo (Ombo Eiver) ; and is used universally 
for staining the teeth black, as is customary among them. 

Stone I/iiplcmcnts. 

T never succeeded in procuring any stone implement in New 
Georgia, but Lieut. Munro, one of our officers, discovered a 
broken club-head on Kulambangara Island — now in the O.xford 
Museum, They have probably all been long ago sold to traders 
and others. The native drills all have now-a-days a piece of an 
old triangular, or rat-tail file as a borer. Pormerly, no doubt, this 
was of stone or shell. A mortar, made of a volcanic water-worn 
cobble-stone, is common. It is used for bruising nuts or any 
hard food to a suitable consistency ; a specimen of this also has 
been deposited in the Oxford Gniversity Museum. 

Machinery. 

The native drill is, I suppose, the only article in use in New 
Georgia to which the term “machinery” can be given. It 
consists of a long spindle of areca-nut palm, varying in length 
and diameter with the size of the borer retpured to be used, 
between alrout 18 inches and 2 feet irr length; the upper 
end is notched, tire lower is recessed to take the borer ; which, 
nowadays, is almo.st always an old sharp-pointed file : 4 or 5 
inches above this, a rotatory fly-wheel is placed. Tliis is 
formed of a flat disc of stone, about 4 inches in diameter, and 
an inch thick. Motion is produced by a cross arm with a string 
attached to the ends, the bight of which lies in the notch before 
mentioned ; atrd the twistirrg and untwisting of the strirrg round 

2 c 2 



376 


B. T. SOMERTILLE. — Eth'iiograpMcal Notes 


the shaft causes a rotatory motion to the borer, first one way 
and then the other. This cross piece is cj^uite separate to t!ie 
spindle ; it travels up and down on the side of it, and there is 
no hole or notch in it for the spindle to go through, or rest in. 

Fire. {Sec Plate XXXV.) 

I'ire is made by friction with a stick in a long shaped groove. 
A dry, well-seasoned piece of wood is selected, very commonly 
the fiat board used as a canoe seat, and a small piece of ei|ually 
dry wood — a splinter of deal does well enough — is sharpened 
for the stick. The point thus made varies a little in various 
parts ; but the most usual is with the upper surface flat and a 
point bevelled-up. 

A great deal of the art of fire-making rests in a well cut 
point, neither sharp nor blunt, and with the facets underneath 
at a correct angle. It is necessary to si^uat in a certain manner 
on the piece of wood in which tire is to be made : that is 
to say, with the left leg stretched out, and slightly bent, and 
the right foot over the wood and under the thigh of the left 
leg ; so that the right leg lies fiat, and sharply bent at the knee. 
The body rests on the end of the wood. This position was 
pointed out to me as important. The fire-maker having 
sharpened his stick proceeds then to cut off a few out.side 
shavings from the large flat piece of wood he is sitting on. so 
as to get a true and clean surface, about 6 or 8 inches long, in 
which to make a groove. He then seizes the stick, which 
must be held clo.?ely pressed against the under surface of the 
right hand, crossing it diagonally, somewhat as one holds a pen. 
The left hand should lie on top of the right hand and give an 
e.vtra grip witlr its thumb, over the right thumb grasping the 
stick. The fingers of botli hands must be extended and the 
“ business ” point of the stick should protrude an inch or .so 
beyond the fingers. This position of the hands is quite essential 
to the proper production of fire, and much care is exercised to 
seize the stick in exactly the proper method, at the proper spot, 
and to keep it at a proper angle with the flat wood. 

The stick being pro])erly arranged, the fire-maker proceeds to 
rub the point backwards and forwards on the flat wood : care- 
fully varying the angle of pressure by raising and lowering 
the wrists, until a groove 3 or 4 inches long is formed. The 
motion begins slowly, and as it continues, the groove gets 
blackened, and a small heap of fine, dust-like shavings collects 
at the further end. Xow is the time to quicken up ; the seizure 
of the exact moment being entirely a matter of practice. A 
little thin column of blue smoke is .‘^oon seen to arise from the 
wood dust, and then another critical moment must be seized— 



in Net': Gcorjia, Solomon Islands. 


377 


also learnt only by ex^tevience — to cease tlie frictional motion, 
and to blow gently on the slightly smouldering wood-dust. One 
h ind must guard the tinder from blowing away, and if the 
breath is properly applied, the smoke from the little black heap 
gets more and more, tdl finally, all the wood dust can be seen 
to be red and burning. A few little dry chips placed on it soon 
catch alight ; and the production of fire is complete. If propef 
attention be paid to position of body and hands, the learning 
how to produce fire does not take long. I did not proceed with 
my lesson in the art for long enough, hut all of us who tried 
Very nearly managed it, and one actually got his tinder to burn ; 
but not Ireing experienced enough in nursing the young flame, it 
died out again. 

So far as I saw and know, there is no religious idea with 
regard to the production of fire ; any one who can may make it, 
and European matches (iknchu pindala — fire strikers) are very 
much preferred to friction as a means to procure it. An 
lAc'-’o; Jio'pc, or sacred fire, is made on some occasions, to be 
described later, and the remains of them may be seen scattered 
about in all sorts of odd places in the bush. 

Drawing, Sinil^dure, and Ornamentation. 

Although there is no system of drawing which in any degree 
exhibits an idea of “ writing,” the arts of drawing, sculpture, 
and ornamentation are wonderfully common in Xew Georgia. 
In any village one man. at least, can always be found skilled as 
a carver ; but the majority seem to be possessed of this faculty 
in a moderate degree. There is, however, in drawing, a notice- 
able ])Ocerty of subject; tlie specimens which accompany this 
paper pretty well e.xhaust their list of representations — canoes, 
men, tuio ishu, frigate-birds, porpoises, alligators, and sharks — 
nil of which are figured more or less conventionally. 

This particular drawing was of course done with pencil and 
p:iper for our edification, but their usual appliances bring the 
resulting design more properly under the litading of “ Orna- 
mentation,” as they are scratched with a sharp knife on a piece 
of bamboo or a lime gourd — and blackened with charcoal from 
a tire or whitened with lime from the nibinu pot. 

There is not the slightest notion of perspective, and all objects 
are shown in profile. Occasionally symmetry is introduced, or, 
any way, attempted, and pattern is commonly produced from 
highly conventionalised figures of frigate-birds and fish, often 
showing great skill in the adaptation. I fancy there is no idea 
of drawing from nature, but though the figures produced are 
not absolutely copied from another man's work, still all are 
drawn more or less in the same manner. Conventionality 



378 


B. T. SOJIEEVILLE. — Etlinogrophicttl Xoies 


however, lias not yet reached such a point as to render the 
subject depicted indi=;tinguishable as a natural object. 

I have sent to the Oxford iMuseuni a specimen of a native draw- 
ing by one man. which was deliberately intended as a portrait of 
another. It was drawn as a sort of joke, in imitation of one of 
our officers who liail just made a recognisable portrait of one of 
the natives, which had plea.sed them a good deal, and of which 
they fully a] 'predated the likeness. 

European drawings are a great source of pileasure to them ; 
they seem to quite understand them, and took special amuse- 
ment in a political cartoon I once showed some of them, in 
which the figures represented an eagle and a snake with 
human heads. Photograplis of people and places also are 
easily recognised ; and tho.se of some sjtots in and near Eubiana 
with a portrait of a man, taken by Mr. Woodford, the engrav- 
ings of which appear in “ A Xaturalist among the Head 
Hunters,” were recognised and named. 

The colours used in painting carvings are black (charcoal), 
white (lime), and red (of the material before mentioned), blue 
(obtained from indigo — or also washing blue from the traders) ; 
and, rarely, yellow. 

As regards the drawing of maps, I am given to understand 
that a framework was procuied by Captain St(.)pfurd of H.M.S. 
“ Cura(joa,” in one of the Solomon Ciroii]) — not Xew Georgia — 
in wliich shells large, and small, represented islands and 
harbours in the vicinity ; and strings connecting them showed 
the course to be steered in order to fetch them. I think there 
is no idea of a graphic representation, though some men I once 
showed the chart I was employed upon fully understood its 
convention and purpose after my explanation of it ; and pointed 
out, quite correctly, to other natives where the various islands, 
etc., were situated on my chart. 

Carvings are done both in incised lines, raised pattern work, 
bas-reliefs, fretwork, and sculpturing on the round; bas-relief 
being the least common. Specimens of all have been sent by 
me to the Oxford University Museum. A great distinction is 
made in sculptures of “ deihh'dehhJcmn" {munijijuta) ami men 
(ft'uoni) — the^e latter are piroduced almost solely fur trade — the 
Manggota being almost grotesque in proportion, with the face a 
great deal too large, tlie top of tlie head terminating almost in a 
point surmounted with a sort of cap (iep>resenting hair) ; while the 
nose and lower pait of the face are almost doglike in prog- 
nathity. 

The repre.sentations of men (finoni), on the other hand, are not 
at all badly puoportioned, and show a very fair amount of observa- 
tion in anatomy; the head and face are neither dispiopoi tinned, 



in Xcv: Guorju', Sulonwn Ishiiuh. 


370 


nor distorted. Icis hard to say whether the fiigate-hird, slunk, 
porpoise, and alligator are considered as totenis in Xew Georgia., 
but they ax)pear in sculpture more than any other forms. (On 
the prows of canoes a carved representation of a biittertiy, with 
half spread wings, is a favourite design, and at Peava I saw a 
beautifully carved figure of a cockatoo on one canoe, colouie I 
with European paints. 

Ornamental patterns have reached a high degree among these 
savages, almost every article in daily use has some slight 
pattern on it ; the tendency is towards conventionalised forms 
of frigate birds and porpoises ; while in geometrical designs the 
favourites are triangles, and s(piares in double lines, the outer 
of which is comniouly “feathered” with short oblique lines. 
The extremities of the outer line are not joined, hut curved hack. 

On decorated canoes the mother-of-pearl ornaments are cc>g- 


wheeled circles. 



lines formed hy a succession of ZZ, and 


a curious comb formed of a number of pieces of shell in this 


pattern, 

VaA-wJ VWXNN WnavJ 


is tied to the inner sides of the 


prows, from top to bottom. The outer edge of the prow, from 
the white plumed figure that sits on the tup, to the Totoish a at 
the water line is ornamented by large pure white “ porcelain" 
cowries, secured transversely, lletsveen each of these a jiiect' 
of small liamboo, wound round nith red turkey twill, is tied, 
also traiisvei'Sely. Each piece of bamboo is about 6 inches long, 
and has a small tuft of white cockatoo feathers at either end. 
At nearly half way down the prow there is always a small g,.p 
in the sliell ornaments, but I could never disco\er the reasmi. 
I noticed the same on several canoes, all similarly adorned. 
The whole effect is exceedingly elegant. 




?so 


B. T. SOMERVILLE . — Ethnographical Eutc$ 



SPECIMEyS OV NATIVE DRAWlyGS. 11. 
a. b. c. Tliree fris;ate-l)ird^ (Mb hum) ; d. Frio.ite-binl ivitli man’s Lead 
(Kinriu) ; e. llau witli frigate-bird’s head (Keiatu). 

Food. 

The variety of food in Xow (.ieorjiia is singularly small, even 
ftir Uceania. Yams are seareely grown at all, aud are \ery 
.small. Taro, sugar cane, sweet potato, and the Cape ilaisli 
potato (grown principally in Bussell or Cape Maisli Islands 
closely adjoining Xew Georgia, and nearly approaching the 
Irish potato iu tiavour and floiiriness), exhausts the list of 
Vegetal lies under cultivation. Bauauas, papa\ys, aud a poor 
species of bread-fruit are the only cultivated fruits ; the 
‘■Kanaka apple” and two other exceedingly nasty acrid fruits, 
whose native names I cannot give, (I believe one to be a specie.s 
of mango), grow wild; as does also the kanary nut {maria), and 
a nut {ndinggi) which grows on a small tree^vith a big, fleshy 



in A'cir Georgia, Solomon Ida.nds. 


381 


uneatable (?) fruit ; twenty or so together on a long stem. Tlie 
coc'jiiut is, of course, the main staple of existence. 

Of animal food, it might be almost said that there is none. 
I’ias are extremely few, either wild or tame, bullocks and sheep 
they have never so much as seen — two skinny specimens of 
Queensland sheep we had on board the “ renguin,'’ occasioned 
cousidera'ole consternation to some of tliem who saw them for 
the first time — and there are but a very few fowls. The onl\^ 
meats that they get are opossum (cuscus) : wliieh when broiled 
is excellent, though rich eating ; turtle, frigate bird, pigeon ; 
the big monitor lizard (only eaten by “ man-bush coconut- 
crabs, land crabs, ciay fish, and cockles ; and finally, the chief 
support of life (beside the coconut), fish, which they catch very 
cleverly with nets, rod, line, ami hook. They are very fond of 
European tinned meats, known generically as lulumakau ; and a 
small boy’s heart is sooner reached by jam, than even tobacco. 

I cannot say for certaiir, but believe that no restrictions are 
placed upon kinds of food to any one, chief or women ; and it 
may be cooked by anyone, though usually by the women. One 
whole tribe, in the neighbourhood of Xgarasi, will not eat 
pigeon ; it is hope or forbidden to them, and no one, anywhere, 
V ill eat either shark or croeodde.' 

There are but two systems of cooking, one by broiling and 
seC'jiul by baking in an earth oven. A sort of i)udding is 
made with kanary nuts, which are stamped into flour by men 
with poles, in a long wooden trough hollowed out of a log. 
There is no trace of “ kitchen middens ” anywhere ; the refuse 
of food must in any case be small, and what there is is con- 
sumed by the dogs or pigs. 

There are no sorts of manufactured drinks made, coconut 
milk and water (which is kept in coconut shells) alone are 
used. Neither palm wine nor kava are known. The natives 
however take veiy kindly to tea, cott'ee, and cocoa, if well 
sweetened. Alcoholic drinks are exceedingly repugnant to 
them ; those only who have been employed with traders and 
other whites will take them ; partly I think in bravado. 

?Meal3 seem very uncertain atl'airs ; there is only one regular 
one in the day, in the evening. I believe the women eat separatelv 
after the men have finished. In the men’.s basket you will 
U'Ually find a piece of fish to carry them through the day ; but 
the universal and eternal chewing of betel probably takes away 

^ I may mention here that wild ginger (called minila) is also eaten, or rather 
dieted; the presentation ot* a piece to another person signifies your declaration 
ot* ■' war ” against him ; and for this reason it was some time before we could 
indnee the natives to eat any of our gingerbread biscuits, until assured we 
meant them no harm. 



382 


B. T. Somerville. — Ethnographical Kates 


most of the desire for food ; and a small piece of coconut cpiite 
suffices for both lireakfast and lunch. 

Feasts are held on all occasions of joy or grief. As regards the 
fiirmer I have no information ; hut I witnessed one of tlie latter, 
the last of a series of three in honour of a dead chief, hv name Savj. 

A large pig was chosen, and, though I did not actually 
witness the event, it was explained to me that it had been 
killed by suffocation ; its nose having been tightly tied up with 
a piece of creeper. It was then placed on a sort of large grid- 
iron made of bough.?, and a small fire lighted underneath ; the 
skin and hair thus becoming singed, were scraped off by two 
men with coconut shells. When completely scraped, the pig 
was taken off the tire, opiened up, the entrails removed — edible 
parts alone being retained — and the whole pig divided into 
sixteen portions, the head and the hams forming one each. 
These (with the exception of the hams, which I bought for our 
camp) were then placed, without further dressing, in a hot-stone 
oven, and cooked. 

Meanwliile, a party of eight or ten young men were stamping 
■maria (kanary) nuts, which had been brought to the fea.st ready 
cracked, the kernels packed in large baskets holding thirty or 
forty pounds ; and were soon formed into a flour, which, witli 
coconut milk, was cooked into a pudding to accompany the 
pig. There were men from all parts of the district; and their 
wives, while the cooking of the pig was proceeding, sat in the 
shade in a small canoe house, placidly chewing betel. At an 
order from Bera (the chief giving the feast), however, they all 
came out into the sun, in order to be photographed. 

Some of the canoes left that ninht for their homes, so the fun 
was not very fast or furious; the others had all left before the 
following sundown. 

Cininilalism. 

Cannibalism is undoubtedly still practised in Xew Georgia, 
but I can give no particular.? ; as if it was done during our vi-it, 
it was in the utmost secrecy. I am informed (by a trader) that 
a special ebony fork, 6 feet long, with three prongs, and inlaid 
with mother-of-pearl, is used; and that death is supiiosed to 
follow any one who takes a jriece of cooked flesh in Ids finger.? 
to eat it. The existence of such a fork is utterly denied liy the 
natives and the description as above seemed quite novel to them. 
Natives I have asked say that they never eat man, init that 
“man-bush” often does so still, ilr. Guy, a tuuler we had 
known during our 1893 season, was killed and eaten — his head 
alone being recovered — shortly after we left his vicinity. Ho 
was said to have been sacrificed iu connection with the launch 



ill Xuf Georgia, Solomon Islanils. 


n o 

tJ O' > 

of a new canoe at a place called Xdsai(?), and his boat’s cvew, 
with one exception, shared the same fate. Two great friends of 
ours from Muiiggeri were, we afterwards heard, noted caunihed^, 
who frequently went on raids into the adjoining bush to satisfy 
this appetite. They were certainly, so far as we saw, otherwise, 
two of the best dispositioned men we had dealings with, and I 
had them coiistanrly at work for me. My information was from 
a small native boy, so is probably true. 

Religion and Tahoo. 

It may be safely said that there is no “religion,” strictly 
speaking, in Xew Georgia. A series of good spirits, or hope, lixe 
in the sun, the moon, and the stars (according to the Eastern 
natives) ; one of them Panda, or Pundo, who is their special 
friend. Eves in tlie shooting stars ; while another one, also' a 
“good fella,” lives in the ground. (Abfr.)— Another name 
obtained for this person was Sondo, and it seemed to refer also 
to the abiding pilace of souls. 

The following is the belief regarding a man’s entity, and its 
disposition after death. Each person consists of a bodv, what 
may be roughly termed a spirit, and a soul. The spirit is one’s 
redeetion — as in still water or a looking glass — the soul is one's 
shadoiL-, as thrown by the sun, or artificial light ; the former is 
evil, and the latter good ; each person, supposedly, being a 
combination of both, though by what ethical laws the discrimi- 
nation is made, it would be hard to say. I was a good deal 
interested to hear the year after I obtained this information 
from absolutely imtampered sources in New Georgia, and in 
their native language, that a precisely similar belief occurs in 
Fiji. It seems to me a very remarkable identity, and it is 
strange to find it also in such an unlooked for held of thought, 
among either of these luilf-savage races, as tliat of metaphysics. 
At death, the soul, or shadow, goes to live with (or at) Panda, 
the good spirit, nobody kmnvs exactly wliere ; but a man mav 
meet his wife (his other relations as well) in this place, whife 
the spirit, or reflection, remains on earth, and lives principally 
in the bush, where it will fall upon anyone venturing near it 
and kiU him if it can. It also comes in the form of a ghost, to 
frighten people at night in their houses, tapping, tajijiing, and 
inspiies men to do bad action.s. I had all this iuformatton at 
word of mouth, mostly in the native language; so it mav be 
relied on as being original. After a period of years, 'this 
“spirit” gradually fades away, and eventually dies altogether. 
I should add that there is but one name for either .soul or spirit : 
they are called nur/iiigo mnnggo alike. 

Besides these human emanations, however, there is a wide 



384 


E. T. Somerville. — EUuicrjraj^ldcal Notes 


belief in " (■dioIuJthhleiims ’ — called collectively racritnfiota, and 
described as tLiojituiuju ci'iena — suinething evil. Tliere are 
those of the sea, and tho.se of the land. They are not looked 
iiiioii as ai.'Solntely spiritual, or supernatural, hut as having a 
real flesh and blood existence, though endowed with power over 
the afiair.s of nature. I'robahly I have not heard of all the 
‘'manjuota that are .supposed to exist, hut one marine monster, 
very fre'[iient]y depicted on the prow of canoes, i.s called KdsoJeo. 

I have .sent several specimens of carvings of this creature to the 
nmseuni, amd no one can see it without being struck at the 
fortuitous, but none the less sti iking, resemblance to an ancient 
Eayptian mythical being. The figure consists, roughly speaking, 
of the body of a man, seated, with his elbow on his knee, 
wearing a big ornamental collar, and surmounted by the head 
of a fiigate bird; both head and body largely conventionalized. 

The tigure also wears an ornamented waist cloth, and is 
always depicted in exact ju-ofile, and highly coloured. Indeed, 
from Ills profile view having always been presented, and thus 
only one leg and one arm able to be shown, the belief now is 
that Kdol.'u has but one arm and one leg. It is said to live iu 
the sea, and to be able to command the winds and waves, to 
capsize canoes ; and when this is accomplished it falls upon the 
occupants and devours tliem. The natives say tliat it usually 
lives oil fi^li, that plenty of men liave seen it, and that at almost 
any time it may be heard in its home under the edge of the 
Coral reef, blowing out the air from its lungs (tlie air sucking 
and putlnig through the licles in the reef). His power is com- 
bated, however, by Totoishu, a small figure of a man’s head, snp- 
]>orted on its two clenched fists, the face of extreme and dog- 
like prognathity, generallv painted black, with the features 
emplia^isod by mother-of-pearl iidav work. It is always tied to 
the piovy' of the canoe at the water line. (This same figure is 
exaetlv reproduced, with similar functions in Florida, where it 
is called tithiom, a word that in Xew Georgia might perhaps 
mean “liLdly of a man.") I was ne\er able to discover if 
Totoishu Were a land, or a water being. 

I now come to the land “ delblcinn,” which is usually spoken 
of a.s M'liujijo (without the reduplication of the word). This 
subject seems to me to he one of great interest, and if it i.s, 
a-^ I believe, the rude native de.sciiption of some rare, and, 
to them, teiiifying creature, it carries outside Ethnology into 
the domain of Xatural History. I will give five desciijitions of 
the creature, which I took down at word of niuuLli, in their own 
language, from men, sometimes spokesmen of parties of visitors, 
of whom I had inquired for information. 

(1) ‘ In the hush, near the moimtain top, lives Maivjgo, a 



ill Xcii' Geargia, Solomon I.Gunils. 


385 


Iiu^e creature with arms aiul legs as hig as ciiceiiut trees, ami 
hair all over his face. Xo man has seen one close, hecause if 
anv one goes near enough to it, it kilts ami eats him, and so he 
never returns.” 

(2) “ There are two kinds of Monggo in the bush, one good, and 
one bad. The former, if you see it, makes you fall sick ; several 
men have seen it, I have not ; but it was of the height of a man. 
The bad one has sharp (gigachundi, like a spear point) elbows, 
shoulders, and knees ; and those who see it die of the effects.” 

Lipu, a friend of mine, who had -sccw ifanggo in the bush above 
Vaholi (opposite our camp), told me as follows : — ■ 

(3) “ He was about as big as a man, with an enormous head 
of black hair, and there was hair over all his face as well. He 
had a long nose and the lower part of his face stuck out like this 
(illustrating with his hands, making his nioutli and chin ]iro- 
truding like a dog’s face). His body was covered with light 
coloured hair, he had no tail, and he had hands fur feet : all his 
hands had large talons. He lived in a hole in a big tree, and 
when I (Lipu) saw him, he was going along by his hands by the 
creepers, from tree to tree. Manggo do not eat man, but if a 
man sees one, he get sick ; they have a very unpleasant smell.” 

Lipu also told me in reply to my question that he had himself 
been ill after seeing this Manggo. This, and an iucpury as to 
whether it had a tail or no, were the only questions I asked 
him. All the remainder was given out straight, without any 
promptings. This man had once seen a small monkey on board 
a schooner (in reply to my Cj^uestiou), but apparently did not at 
all connect it with a ifanggo. 

(4) ‘‘There are three sorts of Manggo: Chinoho (dark 
coloured), Hi’ ica (light coloured), and Oraica (coloured, i.f., red or 
yellow). Some men only get sick, but otlier.s die on seeing one.” 

(5) Another man who had .^ccn one — I did not get his name 
— said that it had black hair all over : that Manggo have been 
known to take big stones and pua ra (soil, generally) up into the 
trees, and drop it upon men’s heads. Sometimes they come 
down to the .salt water. 

In confirmation of the last statement, I will only say that 
one of our officers, Lieutenant Waugh, told me that he hall seen 
a strange large hairy creature, with a head like that of a doo-, 
lying on a bough in the bush near the water line ; but that he 
did not get a proper view of it. 

I should remark in conclusion that the bush in the parts 
where the Manggo are stated to have been seen, is certainlv not 
inhabited by man. There are a few coast natives, who have 
one small bush refuge-village — the rest is uinli,-,turbed and 
trackles.s forest, without smoke or sign of life at any time. 



386 B. T. Somerville. — Ethnogi-ophical Kutcs 

While I am on the subject of strange animals, I may remark 
that the natives report a small rat (apparently) called chichiunj'jn, 
of which I have sent a carving on a canoe prow to the museum. 

It was explained to me,bybodilyillustration,that it hopped like 
a kaii:iaroo, and was very small, and difficidt to catch. It lived 
awav back in the bush, and seemed to be thought hope, or sacred. 

Other hope creatures are lal'o.hi, the great fish eagle, totoa 
Hohills, a night-jar that makes no nest, but lays 
its etrgs on the beacli), and to the Xgarasi natives only h/rti 
l unp the ordinary grey Solomon Island pigeon. This latter 
mav be shot by these people, but not eaten. The shark and the 
crocodile are both also hope, because, as one man explained to 
me, they eat man. Iii Eubiana they may not be even touched; 
but in the eastern part, though tliey may be killed, they must 
not be eaten. I was informed, howe\'er, by ilr. Kelly, of 
Euluana, that a man of that district, whose child had been 
carried otf by a crocodile, had had the hope removed oft' these 
cieatures, as far as he was concerned, until he had killed one 
hundred. A crocodile usually appears roughly carved, in cuu- 
nectioii with the figure on the house post before mentioned. 

Hope Altars and Graves. 

Once or twice in the year, after a feast, food is jdacecl out for 
tlie or spirits, in certain places in the bush. A small 

altar, surmounted by curiously shaped coral stones, is built, 
and on it are placed all sorts of useless and broken articles — 
pipes, tomahawks, knives and rings — near it is usually a small 
circular jilace of stones where a fire is lighted and food 
cooked. There was one such on an island on which we were 
camped, and when I incpiired what the place was — thinking it 
a giave — I was told by Bera, the chief, that it was a/mpr which 
he had himself made, and he seemed surprised at my visiting it ; 
as a native who so much as saic the place after it b.ad been first 
made, would get sick and die. Near the big altar was a small 
flat stone on the ground, surrounded by still smaller ones in a 
border. It is necessary to discriminate between hope altars and 
graves. They much resemble one another, but the latter may 
be sometimes just a walled in place instead of a heap ; and if it 
is at all recent, and its occupant lately iiossessed of wealth, 
it is common to see an article of value deposited on it — a 
shield, a whale tooth, or shell rings, some broken, some wdiole. 

A carving of a hope may be seen stuck in the ground at 
almost any village in New Georgia. Although these natives 
have a very good idea of carving the human face or figure, the 
faces of these are so roughly made as to be almost conventional, 
the eyes, mouth, etc., being depicted by pieces of mother-of- 



ill ycir Georgia, Solomoii Ish'ii'is. 


387 


pearl or shells. An ugly, forbidding, and foolish face is 
generally the result, with wide staring eyes, and a long pointed 
chin ; beneath which lie two entirel)’ dispr'oportionate atro- 
phied arms, growing from the ears ; from which, downwards, 
they follow the line of the chin. There are no other features 
or limbs. This figure, which is almost invariably made of a 
fern-tree stump, stands in a small heap of coral stones, decor- 
ated, as usual, with broken pipes, etc. I could discover nothing 
of the functions of this hope, but presume that, like the hogie in 
the house, it is a sort of protector of the village (as the others 
are of the individual houses) against Manggota. 

Other Hopes. 

The preventive against trespass and robbers (of coconuts, 
chiefly), is the putting up on the spot of hopes. There is prob- 
ably a separate proper name for them, but I could never obtain 
it. These fulfil the double purpose of warning trespassers or 
thieves that the place is hope, or forbidden to them, and also of 
carrying mysterious punishment if the warning be disregarded. 
There are two descriptions ; one bringing death on the com- 
mitter of the trespass or robbery, the other sickness. A death 
hope consists of single sticks, 3 or 4 feet long, stuck in the 
ground at the landing places or entrances to the coconut 
plantation, or garden desired to be protected. The top of these 
sticks is split for a short distance, and in the cleft thus formed 
dead leaves, a piece of fern root, and a wisp of grass are placed, 
surmounted by (rarely) a skull, a piece of ants’ nest, or a large 
shell : either of these constructions informs the intruder that he 
will wither away like the grass, and become as dead as the 
original owner of the skull, as the ants that once lived in 
that piece of nest, or as the fish that inhabited the shell, accord- 
ing to the emblem of mortality exhibited. A “ sickness hope ” 
is similarly constructed, but is surmounted by a piece of coral, 
instead of the other articles. A curious description of hope, 
that I saw in the bush on the road to Yonggi, was erected 
against the .stealing of opossums from a certain man’s property, 
and was made of long tree-fern stalks, secured in the form of a 
sliglit post-and-rail fence, 12 feet long, and 4 or 5 feet high, 
hound up with creepers. At the top of one end-post was a 
small cleft stick, supporting a piece of twisted twig, vaguely 
resembling a bird or an opossum. 

Another description of h<pe that I saw, was made by putting 
a festoon of a certain creeper across the entrance to the coco- 
nut grove, with pieces of tlie same along it at regular intervals, 
hanging perpendicularly down, and secured to the ground. I 
had two natives with me at the time, and at first they did not 



388 B. T. SOMEEVILLK. — Ethnographical Notes 

like to land on the islet thus marked, as it had been “htffcN by 
their chief, Bera. They did land eventually, however, and one 
of them went under the hope barricade, picked the central tiny 
shoot of a large fern, in appearance like the English hart’s- 
tongue fern, from which he nibbled a little bit, and then handed it 
to the other man, who did the same. They assured me that now 
the hope would have no effect — so long as they did not steal any 
nuts. In the eastern districts I was informed that a chief only 
could make a hope : in Eubiana the possessor of any land can 
do so, and here the effects of the hope, whether robbery has been 
intentional or no, can be frustrated (Mr. Kelly told me) by th.e 
payment of twenty shell rings {Hohatci), no more, and no less, 
to the proprietor of the coconuts. A man once took advantage 
of the owner of a certain coconut grove being away, to go ovei, 
with his wives, and rob the entire grove of several thousand 
nuts; all that he paid the proprietor, however, in hope compen- 
sation, was the twenty rings, which of course by no means 
covered the cost of his depredation. 

The removal of a hope is the occasion (in the last district) for 
a small feast. 

Names. 

I have found that the New Georgia natives, particularly 
those who have had little contact with white people, are shy 
about telling one their personal names. In any case few of 
them care to say it out in a loud voice, and it is always be<t 
ro ask the name of a man from some one else standing near. 
I have tried this repeatedly, to establish my opinion on the 
subject, and have no doubt that there is some “ superstition 
regarding it, though I was never able to discover the origin. 

I will quote one very marked case of a lad that we had with 
us living in the camp, doing odd jobs, and teaching us language 
etc., of whom, when he first came to us, wken I demanded his 
name, he, after much half-ashamed hesitation, said it was 
Ndongondogova, and by that name (usually shortened to the 
second half) he went among us for three weeks or more. TVe 
had never noticed that the other natives named him otherwi-e, 
until one day I heard him answer to the name of Kiirniti, being 
thus hailed l>y another lad ; and on inquiry, I discovered that 
this was his real name, while the other was purely fictitious. 
Later on still, I discovered that Ndrjngonddgona meant loin-cloth, 
and then fully appreciated the shouts of derision that poovKumiti 
had to undergo, when I then told the other natives that th.at 
was the name he had given us as his own. I sup])ose we had 
upset him so much at the time that this was the first that had 
occurred to him to give us. 



Id 2^cii' Gtuiyui, Sulomon Isla/uls. 


389 


Uril Eye. 

The Evil Eye is scrougly believed ia ; aud is, I am told, one 
of the most frecj^uent causes of fightings and head-huntings. 

During part of the survey our camp, for about three weeks, 
was in the village cif Bill. On our first arrival at the spot, a 
short time before we came to camp there, we had found the 
place full of people : it was now, on our second visit, absolutely 
deserted. 

The plantation whence they got their food had been alloweil 
to fall into a jungle, the houses were left exactly as they had 
been slept in the night before the sudden exodus, but otherwise, 
except tliat the daily showers had washed the paths a bit 
cleaner than usual, ttiere was no change in the appearance of 
the place. On making inquiries at the neighbouring village 
of Totelavi — on an islet not more than half-a-mile distant — we 
discovered that about tsvo months previously the chief, one 
Xgetu, had died, aud that, in consequence, the whole of the 
inhabitants had cleared out, and gone to live elsewhere. On 
pressing our informant for a reason, he said that whenever the 
chief of a place died tlie people of hi.s village went away to live 
.somewhere else. Subsequently I was assured 1 )y Mr. Wickham, 
a trader of long and good standing in Xew Georgia, that this 
was really often the case, and that he knew of several villages 
which had been thus deserted on the death of the chief. (It 
does not always occur, however, for I know of one instance in 
the adjoining village of Teava where the chief, Ihlkato. had 
died and no change was made.) We heard afterwards that 
there was a special reason for the desertion of Bili, which was 
chat as two or three old people had died .somewhat rapidly one 
after the other, and finally Xgetu, the chief, an elderly man, 
had done the same, it was declared he had succumbed to the 
effects of the Evil Eye ; aud further, that the wife of a man oi 
Beava (a brother of the chief Ihikato) had cast it on Xgetu. 
The iuhabitauts accordingh' deserted the place, while some of 
the younger men “laid” for the woman wdio had evil-eyed 
their chief, and eventually succeeded in murdering her. A 
fight between the two places was thus confidently expected, 
which I have a shrewd suspicion our presence in the vicinity 
alone prevented. Tlie unhappy widower took refuge with iMr. 
Wickham on board his trading ketch, until the troubles 
should be over, and stayed there for more than two months. 

At the end of tliat time we went and camped in the deserted 
village, and in some way, it seems, exorcised the “ (hMlcihlUeinds" 
who otherwise were occupying the place, for on Mr. Wickham's 
return towards the close of our season, still with the widower ( >1' 

VOL. XXVI. 2 D 



r>. T. SOMEliVlLLE. — Etliiioijruphtcal Notes 


:;90 

the e\'il-eved ladv oii hoard, soiae old Bill tulk \veut oil frouj 
Totelavi to the kkeh. assured him of liis safety, and announced 
that oil our departure tliey intended to go back again to live 
iu the place ; and as far as I know the place is now again 
iuhabited. 

Nope iJi^t I'll t>-. 

The summit of Voiiggi, a highly remarkable peak which 
stood up l.UOO feet like a huge thumb, was considered hope, or 
sacred. I was informed that a large fish and a gigantic clam 
shell lived on the top, who would kill an intruder. The 
summit of Ivorai. another prominent liillin the Xgarasi district, 
where our officers made a tiigouometrical station, was also 
sacred : there was a large ring i.d' I:>ig stones surrounding the 
■aiimmit, with every appearance of great age, inside of which 
uciie of the uative.s could be induced to go. Tliere was a 
similar building on the sharp and prominent summit of Miirovu 
Island, also hope, and forbidden tij be trodden by natit'es. 

Kicha, a simill island off the coast, tlie laht of the Xew 
(.■Georgian group to the south-east, is also .sacred, and no woman 
is allots eil to land on it. A hope called IMateava lives on it, 
but what his functions were I could not learn. 

Theie was ju.st otf the coast, near Mnnggeri. a small islet 
( ailed (Jluwotu, which I was surprised to find, on landing upon 
it, to be altogether aititicial. It was entirely built up of large 
coral stones ou the fiat fringing reef surrounding the shore, 
to whicli I found traces of its having been once joined by a 
causeway, perhaps dU yards long. The islet was roughly rect- 
angular aud at the shore side of it a sort of scpiare, heavily 
built arch bad been erected. It was just possible to walk 
beneath the strong beams of wood that supported the 
luasoiiry." fully 4 feet deep, tliat formed the crown of the 
arcli. I climbed on to tlie top, and there found several carved 
figures in coral stmie, representing human head.s iiianipjotu , and 
iiiheleiiui (frigate-birds), all about life size, but impossilde to 
remove without discovery from tlie uati\ es. There were also 
large numbers of botli erini/i aud hohitu — the shell rings before 
de.scribed — with nld tomahawk heads, and so forth, A few 
luislie.s grew on the lower part of this strange place, and one 
small coconut tree, ti> which 1 was intending to affix a survey- 
ing mark, but that Baku Yingguchu, the King of Munggeri, 
besought me not to, as it was nmii ho2)e njetena, “ a very sacred 
island, ” so I did not again so much as land on it. 

A S(jmewhat similar place, though not so elaborate, occurred 
on the .sea-side of the barrier chain of islands and islets sur- 
rounding this part of the coast. Several altar-like erections 



in Jk' ic Gt’oiyia, Sithiiiiun 


391 


were built out on u slightly projectiug coral promontory, aiul 
were full of human skulls, rings, tomahawk lieacls — broken and 
I'usty — and old pipes. We collected about fifteen skulls (twelve 
of them are now in the hands of Dr. Gaison) and several rings, 
without detection. There is a similar sacred place off the 
Xgarasi district. 

There are also whole large bush districts, beside the mountain- 
tops before mentioned, which aie. b\' general consent, con- 
sidered liirpe, or tabooed ; and luider no consideration will a 
native walk there. How they liave all liecoine so, and for how 
long the taboo lasts I eamiot sav ; but 1 can give one instance 
which came under my notice of a small islet in a rather remote 
part of the lagoon, which, while all the adjoining islets were 
covered with bush, was entirely groun with coconuts. I had 
several natives with me in the boat at the time I first saw it, 
and as I desired to land on it, to erect a surveying mark, I 
steamed over towards it. Immediately there was an outcry 
that I could not land there, that it was hope, and so forth. 
However, as it was e.vceedingly important to the survey to do 
so, and as I said that only white people should land, and that 
black men’s Itopets could not affect us, they conceded so far as to 
allow us to go by our.selves. I found the islet in the wildest con- 
fusion ; the older coconut trees had cast down tlieir nuts, year 
after year, unheeded, and lunl forme(l a soil, these shells and 
husks only, at least feet deep, in the midst of which a perfect 
jungle of sapling coconut trees was thrusting upward. I set 
up my mark on a small outstanding rock on one side of the 
islet, having cleared away about fifty old and new copra nuts 
to arrive at the hard coral beneath, and went back to the boat. 
On inquiry 1 then learnt that some twelve years liefore (as far 
as I could afterwards judge Viy asking some white residents of 
Eubiana). the Eubiana boys,” out on a head-liuuting expedition, 
had arrived at this islet, on which there then was a small 
village, and had taken every head in the place. A hope was 
accordingly pronounced not only on the islet, but on all the 
adjoining coast for a mile or so on either side, and this had 
been up to now rigidly maintaineil. I had occasion to land in this 
vicinity some time after, up the estuary of a mountain torrent 
which came down hereabouts — where we liad the good fortune 
to find some specimens of a rare paiidanus, much sought after by 
the Kew Garclens authorities — and to climb a hill to make a 
trigonometrical station on its summit, all being within the 
proscribed limits. That night I was bitten by a centipede, as 1 
lay on my mattress on the ground in the tent. For over thirty- 
six hours I had endured a torture comparable to nothing in 
mv experiences previous or subsequent ; when, feelino- slightlv 

2 D 2 



892 


B. T. Somerville. — Ethnographicul Notes 


better, but still in great pain, I went out to try and do some 
survey work on the adjacent coast. While thus engaged it 
came on to rain, and being near a village I went into the house 
of a man I knew slightly until the weather should moderate. 
In conversation I told him that I had been bitten by a centi- 
pede, whereon he seemed much amused, and told me that I had 
probably given oli'ence to some one, who had sent the centipede 
at night to bite me — that that was what black men thought of 
such occurrences. When, however, he heard tliat I had landed 
at Veriverichi, the hope district, he thought it more probably 
had reference to that. I then asked him if he knew of any- 
thing that would cure me, and he said that he knew of some- 
thing which grew in the bush that would soon do so, and that 
lie would go and get it. I was much disafipninted when he 
returned with only two small pieces of grass, which he pro- 
ceeded to tie round my left ankle — near which I had been 
bitten — saying that tlie pain would soon “ finish.” As a matter 
of fact it was then dying away, and when my friend came next 
morning, Sumlay, to the camp and found me up and about 
again, only slightly lame, he was cpiite sure his charm had 
cured me. He then told me that he was a tinoni hope, or 
sacred man; and I dcmbt if I should have otherwise found that 
out, as they are veiy shy of telling one of such qualifications. 

The Tino/ii Hopi. of iMunggeri also rewniled himself to me 
only under extreme circumstances. Munggeii was the largest 
village in our neighbourhood, and possesseil a fine war canoe, 
in an unusually big /'/vc/. or canoi-house. One day I found 
inside this canoe an exceedingly large and well carved toina- 







■‘OIOWOTr, ’ &ACRED I-sLE. 



in Xev: Georgia, Soloraon Islands. 39o 

hawk, which I promptly began to bargain for with my friend 
Ilakn, who was king of the place. I had nearly tempted him 
into surrender by three lalo (whale’s teeth), when a little old 
white-haired man dashed over at me from the other side of the 
house, seized the tomahawk out of my hands, in great excite- 
ment, and declared that it was Hojk Xgdena, “ eery sacred,” 
did not belong to the Idng to sell, but to the whole village ; 
that he was the sacred man, and it was his business to take 
care of it, and then disappeared in a great state of mind to hide 
it more securely. Eaku laughed a bit foolishly, but quite gave 
in, and the other men standing round did the same. 

Ahiulds. 

Almost every man wears an amulet round his neck; httle 
children have sometimes two or three. They are called Hinili, 
and usually take the form of a small ring of shell, dentated 
along a considerable part of the chcumference, a single or 
double frigate-bird {Mlclcnta) fretted in pearl shell, or a 
lunette of the same material usually engraved with 
frigate-birds, etc., combinations also of a circle with 
fretted out frigate-birds within, are common. 

These are supposed to invite the protection of Ponda, 
especially when passing hope places in a canoe. 

Another form is that of a long spiral sliell, ground fiat on two 
sides, thus exhil.iiting the whoil and successive chambers of the 
lielix. This is, besides, attached to canoes. 

Morals and Cuitoms. 

There is, I suppose, some sense of morality, as we under- 
stand it, in these savages, though what there is, must be 
inherent in each individual, as there appears to be no generally 
recogniseil standard of what should be considered “ right ” or 
“ wrong ; ” nor any law but revenge. 

Adultery, stealing, and murder are privately dealt with 
between the offended and the offender ; no one else, cliief or 
otherwise, would dream of interfering, nor is there even a 
village tribunal. However, they have, of course, their notions 
of what a man, morally considered, should be, and discriminate 
easily, and by similar process of reasoning to our own, between 

good fella man,’’ and “ Irad fella man ” — especially among 
white traders. Infanticide is not considered wrong, or, at 
least, no one will revenge it. If a mother bear a daughter, and 
daughters are not desired in the village, it is kdled without a 
pang of remorse, and the same is done on the verv rare 
occasion of twins ; one is always killed, preferably the girl, if 
there be one. Cheating in trade is very common ; I fancy they 




394 


B. T. SojrERViLLE. — Hthnograpliital Xotts 


recognise it is not tlie proper thing to do, hut all they say is, 
“ the more fool you not to lind out I was cheating.” 1 think it 
probable that they obtained this system from the white traders. 

The following ideas obtain with regard to chastity in women 
before marriage. There is no sen.se whatever among them that 
this is a •sii'tue, or even desirable in a girl ; women and men, as 
soon as they are ot age to do so, may have connection promis- 
cuously, just as they desire. This is the rule from the chief .s 
daughter downwards, the man making a payment of ten sticks 
of tobaccij, a fathom of calico, some lieads, pipes, or matches, or 
a shell ring to the parents of the girl ; though the violation of a 
’virgin connnands a larger sum. The act must always take 
place in the bush ; never in a house, which are reserved, or liopt:, 
to married people oidy. On marriage the woman is hope, and 
in the Eastern district I was told that sickness and death woidd 
be the result of interfering with her. I fancy adultery is not 
v'ery common. At Eubiaua, however (according to Mr. Kelly), 
if the guilt of a wife is established, she is killed with a toma- 
hawk ; to the man, whether married or single, no stain attaches. 
On conviction, she is given a chance to escape to the bush, and, 
as she does so she is fallen upon by the men of the place — her 
lover even assisting — and her head cloven. The same i,s done in 
Eubiana if a woman is discovered to have syphilis. 

Should an unmarried girl bear a child, she generally does 
away with it in the bush, where she goes to hide for the 
occasion, and nothing more is said about it. Occasionally they 
keep them alive. I know of one grow u-iip bastard, whom no one 
looked after, and who lived as a sort of slave. 

The Kew Oeorgians have the same ideas of "what is decent 
■with regard to certain acts and e.xposures that we ourselves 
have ; and they are sufficiently advanced to build small retiring 
places out on pile.s over the salt water; but their conversation, 
judging by what they will say in Engii.sh before a white woman, 
no less than by their own usual camp-fire talk, is quite un- 
hcensed. 

Circunvision. 

Circumcision is, I believe, not practised in Xew Cleorgia, but 
the natives are so noticeably’^ decent in their costume as com- 
pared with, for instance, some of the Kew Hebrideans, or even 
the natives of the adjoining island of Malanta, in the Solomon 
group, that it has been difficult to observe whether its non- 
{•ractice is universal. 

G^ocer lull eat. 

At the head of each village is a “ king ” or chief, who may 
command, if he wishes to enforce it, a certain amount of 



hi Ncu' Georylu, Solo'uion Islands. 




395 

oLedience and respect. The office is hereditary, the snccessor 
being often nominated by the present holder ; primogeniture 
not being necessarily the rule, and a chief ha\'ing children 
usually by two or more wives. The son who is to succeed is 
brought up to consider himself a “ cut above ” the other people. 
In war time the chief leads, but I believe the only men he can 
compel to follow him are his slaves ; the others come if they 
nnsh it. There are also tino/ii hope, or sacred men, whose whole 
power I have not been aide to determine ; a few facts concern- 
ing them have been already mentioned. 


Miisic. 

The Xew Georgian natives are notably fond of music. Their 
musical instruments are the flute, mouth fiddle, Jew’s harp (of 
native as well as foreign manufacture), and pan pipes. Thev 
would almost rather have a trade Jew’s harp, than three tobacco 
pipes, as a present ; and would sit listening with evident 
pleasure to a violin, autoharp, and penny whistle, which used 
to be played of an evening in our camp. They appear to 
possess nothing resembling a drum, and the only really discor- 
<lant music they produce is from a conch sheirwith a hole in 
the side ; and this but rarely. 

The flute is a piece of bamboo with both ends closed at a 
Joint, and is about 2 feet C inches long. It has altogether only 
four holes ; one 4 or 5 inches from one end, for the mouth, 
another about 6 inche.s farther down, for the first finger of the 
left hand, one in the diaphragm at the end remote from the 



BOY PL.VYIXG II.UTE. (fcifo). 



B. T. SOMKBVILLE. — Etli iiogriyjjlikcd Xotes 


;:0o 

luoutli. and one iu the side of the dute near that end, stopped 
h_v the thumb and forefinger of the right hand respectively. 

The flute ha.s therefore a very limited scale, but its tone i-^ 
.■;oft and sweet. It is called Iclcn, and is largely used at 
funeral feasts. 

The native Jew’s harp {m lh: inca) i.s a pointed slip of bamboo, 
(i inches long, which has a narrow sharp-i)ointed tongue cut 
down the centre of it. A fine piece of string is passed rouml 
the lower and wider part of the tongue ; this, on being jerked, 
causes the tongue to ^fibrate, while the pointed end of the Jew’s 
haiji is held pressed against tlie teeth after the same fashion as 
our own instrument. The mike iclcu has a pleasant low note. 
1 cannot say whether it is an adaptation of onr Jew’s harp, or 
of original native invention. ( Vid. Plate XXXV.) 

The mouth-fiddle is a piece of rounded stick, 6 or 8 indie' 
long, .slightly bent, and carrying two strings. One end of the 
.stick is held between the teeth, and the strings are vibrated 
with the unused end of one of the strings, or a small piece of 
wood, while the left liancl does the fingering. The strings are 
tuned aliout one tone apart, and only one of them is stopped ; 
lioth are invariably struck together, generally giving the effect, 
pretty nearly, of a triplet. 

The flute and the Jew’s harp are nearly always ornamented, 
but in no particular style of pattern. 

Vijrid music. — The men’s singing voices are, speaking 
generally, high baritone ; sometimes ascending to a nasal 
falsetto, but, on the whole, soft. They have the habit ot 
.swelling and diminishing the note towards the middle and end 
of each line of a song. The only times we heard singing by a 
company of men were during dances with shields and .spears. 
There was no accompaniment of hand-clapping or drumming, 
and the general tone of the song was tliat of a dirge, ratlier 
than a .song of battle. I append tlie word.s and music (kindly 
.scored for me by Surgeon V. (lunson Thorpe, II.X.), e.xacth a.s 
leiideied by them, remarking that where double notes appear 
they were thus sung in unfailing harmony. Another song wa.s 
led by one .singer, the remainder joining, as it were, in the 
chorus, but I cvas not able to procure the tune or word.s. I 
could get no translation of the words here given, and am nut 
sufficiently acf|uainted with the language to give one of my own. 
The natives used commonly to say that the words of their songs 
were “ ganviaon,” which is Island* Englisli foi “nonsense” 
or “ ciiafi.” 

During our second season I was able to olitain the word.s of 
several Xew Georgian .songs, and of one or two airs. One ut 
these songs, named — (Balfour’.-^ .steamer, i.c.. 



in Aew Geoiijict, Soloinon 


397 

H.M.S. “ Penguin was written especially for us. and leci Hinted 
the voyage of the ship through various oeean.s, pa>t niaiiy 
(named) passages, reefs, islets, and shoals, and finished with a 
fictitious incident in connection with Keripi (Griffith), a trader 
of the locality. My collection of songs is in the haiuG of Mr. 
Eay, together with a vocabulary of words and sentences in two 
or three dialects of New Georgia, chiefly compiled by mv 
colleague, Lieutenant 'Weigall. 

Xev: iTeorgian War Dance. 


(Surgeon V. G. Thorpe.) 



Another form of the -in no . 



tu 


ro, 


Po 


lo - tu 


s.i - na. 





398 B. T. Somerville. — Etlinofjraphical Notes 



E - ko - ri - a pha-cha - ve - li, Tu - m - 'a - Dgi. 


A juvour 'de iOog. 



Ke - li ma - i Ko-lo-mo-ru - na Kawo Konji Ke-li nia - i 



Ke - li nia - i Ka - wo Tsa lu M - m - ui - m - m - m. 


Jiir's Ho. r}) Soiij. 



Koioi'o pe - pa. Koiro pi • pa. 


ArcluKoh.uJjj. 

As Usual ill Oceania, any relics of a previous race are either 
extinct, or almost impossible to discover. There are, so far as I 
know, no monolithic or other monuments. The stone imple- 
ments liave all been sold to traders, or other ignorant people, or 
else thrown away as ii.seless by the natives themselves, so I 
regret being unable to show a single specimen, and do not even 
know whether the stone axe-heads, said to have been used 
originally, were imported from other islands or of home manu- 
facture, or even whether of greenstone, or clam shell. 

\Vu !' ant] Wenpoiis. 

\\ ar in Xew (Georgia is pretty well conliiied to head-hunting 
tixpeditiuiis in canoes, undertaken with the sole object of 
acrpiiring skulls, and always takes the form of a surprise ; the 
dense bush and want of knowledge of tracks precludes fighting 
on land to any large extent. The western natives, those of 
liubiana and of Eendova Island, are the most warlike and 
luthless, and, between them, have completely wiped ont the 
1 nhabitants of tlie large adjacent islands of Wana wana, Kiso, 




i/i iWi'/ Geol'ijia, Solunioii Islchuls. 


399 


Tetipari, and, with the exception of a small and wretched 
remnant, those of Knlaiiibangara also. They fell upon the once 
populous island of Murovo within cpiite recent years (since 
1885, I believe), and reduced the number of inhabitants from 
about five hundred to considerably less than one hundred. There 
is a high steep hill at one end of iliirovo, and the Eubiana boys 
who seemed to have sustained a repulse during part of the 
engagement, retreated up the slope, and entrenched themselves 
near the top with stone waUs (of which I have seen the 
remains), leaving access to the summit possible at one small 
gap only, easily defended by a few men, until they felt them- 
selves sufficiently able to continue the assault. 

The eastern natives (now a very small remnant) in their 
turn have, as their head-hunting field, the large mountainous 
district known as Yangunu, the natives of which are more 
savage and uncivilised than their neighbours, and are, on 
account of these attacks, obliged to hve back in the heart of the 
ancient crater of their land. 

■When Commander Davis, in H.M.S. “ Eoyalist,” burnt and 
sacked Eubiana in 1891, the beach was absolutely littered 
with skulls, the stored and cheiished of years : and ever since 
that date Ingova, the king, has striven to replenish the stock. 
During the latter eii'l of our first season in Xew Georgia, 
accordingly, he went away with all his war canoes on a lioad- 
huuting expedition to Ysabel Island — Xew Georgia being 
comparatively " played out ” — to a village called Bombatana, 
part of the jouvuey being out of sight of land. He took twenty 
foiiioko (war canoes) containing about five hundred men, and 
two good-sized English built boats, containing l)etween three 
hundred and four hundred rifles, and nine thousand rounds of 
ammunition. He always leads from the centre, his war canoes 
Hanking out in two wings on citlier side, and the English built 
boats close behind him. He intended to attack by strategy, 
drawing the enemy out of their houses by sending on a racing 
canoe as a bait to lure them afloat ; then falling on such of 
them as ventured out, in his big boats, at the same time landing 
a large party at a little distance down the coast to attack the 
\ illage from the landward side. He returned from thi.s expedi- 
tion on the day of our departure for .'Sydney, and we heard lie 
had been puite successful, and taken many heads. Mr. Kelly 
is my informant for tlie above details. 

On the return of the victm-s, I was also informed, the lieads 
were all decorated, and placed in a prominent position round the 
leading canoe ; and to the sound of conch-.shell lirayings, tlie 
boats proceeded up the lagoon, the rowers indulging in “ fancy 
paddling, as they passed the various villages. 



40(1 


?>. T. Somerville. — Et]i,iitrj,-oj)]dc"l Xoif< 


I can ”ive, I regret to ^ay, no information at present as to 
the leasons tliat cause the desire fur .skulls, the obtaining of 
which appears to be almost the only purpose of these expedi- 
tion'. I am informed that slaves are kept chiefly for their 
lieads, which are demanded whenever any occasion necessitate.s 
them, such as tlie death of the owner ; and are then taken 
suddenly and unexpectedly ; the victim being tirst killed by a 
tomahawk from an ambush. He has no previous warning ; so 
it is. so far, merciful. 

.Such as still remain of weapon.^ in Xew Georgia exhibit a 
\’eiy great want of skill in worhinaiiship, in comparison with 
those of adjacent islands, such as Kougaiiiville or Ysabel. The 
spears are of light make, and aie either altogether of rvood, 
ornamented with yellow “whippings’’ of some rattan-like 
material, and red calico, or, more usually, tipped with the 
serrated sting of the fcpc, or sting ray. Bows and arrows were 
in use. but I have never been aide to prc.eure a genuine fighting 
one. or arrows either. 

The only arrows I saw had entirely undecorated, sharpened 
liard wood points, in a bamboi,> grass shaft, and were notched, 
though unfeatliered. I am not" at all siue that they were 
intended for fighting. 

They appear to have had no clubs, and the only weajion now 
to be seen in canoes, when going even for .short distances, is 
a tcuualiawk, consisting of a trade axe head on a longish 
handle, sometimes ornamented with a .sort of button at the end. 
hut as often without. Gccasioindly these tomahawk handles an- 



POI'IXO SPEAR. 



h! ^L'l'' SulvnllJll I-'illtllJ-t. 


4(11 


very well carved with figures of crocodile, shark, fotoi-'h n , and s<i 
on, inlaid with mother-of-pearl and highly coloured. Shields 
(described under “Basketwork’’) are made in one or two villages, 
and are a valuable possession. These are made not only of 
basketwork, but also of wood ornamented with black, white, 
and red patterns ; perhaps these aie only for sale to white 
people, or for dancing purposes. They are used more to parry a 
blow with than as a steady protection to the whole body, of 
which indeed they only actually cover a small portion. 

FiiJi itir/. 

The natives are very skilful at fishing; which is generally 
<loue with rod, line, and hook, though nets for turtle and larger 
kinds of fishes, with bows, arrows, and spears, are also employed. 
The hooks are of many sizes, and are mo.stly made of a piece of 
mother-of-pearl shell cut to resemble a small fish, to the base of 
which is attached a strong sharp hook of turtle shell, curving 
slightly inward, but unharhed. A couple of tags of coloured 
beads are also generally added, and no bait is used. The 
smaller fish and fry aie taken with a tiny, e.vcpiisitely shaped 
hook of turtle shell, or mother-of-peail, on an almost invisible 
line, made from some tlax-Iike plant. The fislierman wades 
into the sandy shallows, rod in one hand, basket in the cither, 
and in a very short time makes a large catch. Whether the 
fish are only “ jigged,” or whether, attracted by the resemblance 
of the hook to a little worm, they are properly hooked, I cannot 
say ; but when fishing in the middle of a large shoal of small 
fry, the action of liooking and dropping a fisli into the ba.sket 
becomes so swift and regular as to appear almost mechanical. 

Kuril . — There is a tine large fish called — e.xcellent 

eating — which is caught on moonlight nights at the entrances 
to the lagoon between the barrier islands in the deep water. 
These are caught either off the canoes by rod and line, or 
oftener, with kum, from frameworks built out to overhang 
the blue water outside the .-.teep wall of tlie reef. The Irri/ 
is a conical liasket ahout 2 feet deep made of some sort of 
rattan, netted witli a 4-inch mesh, which ha.s a rounded volcanic 
stone secured at the bottom — the ape.v of the cone — to act as a 
sinker. “ A running line,” also of rattan, pa.sses tlirough the 
tipper row of netting. It is baited with cray-Hsh or other .sort of 
fish, and a piece of fishing line being made fast to the end of the 
“ running line,” it is thrown over. I believe it does not actually 
lie on the bottom, hut the weight of the sinker when the tiira is 
in the water, is not sutficient to tauten the running line. The 
upper end of the line may be held in the haml, but it is usually 
lightly made fast to a small supple twig cut in the hush, the end 



401 ’ 


B. T. So\u;i:viL!.K. — Eihjioiiroiihlnil, Xvfr- 


(jf whkh is stuck in a cranny in tlie leef, so that it stands up 
like a fishing rod. -with the line on the end of it. When a fish 
takes the bait, the twig bends violently, and the fisherman, watch- 
ing for this signal, immediately seize.s the line, gives a good sharp 
tug, hauls up rapidly, and if he is at all skilful, a raahisi will be 
found caught behind the gills by the “ running line, ’ with its 
head fast in the bottom ('f the h'ra, clo>e by the bait. 

The natives are very keen-eved at discovering a shoal of fish, 
and now that dynamite is availui.ile, are hotli daring and suc- 
ces.sful in using this dangerous explosive for catching them 
wholesale ; however, it is not uncommon to meet men minus 
an anil, or with other injuries, from the too incautious use of 
IniiniJjano. a.s thev term it. As the fish usually sink when 
dynamited, the diving powers of the natives come then into 
useful juumineuce. 

AgrifiiJti'n. 

Taro is tiie principal crop raised ; the soil in many places 
being highly favourable to its growth. Batches are cleared in 
the bush by axe and tire, and after a very short period of use, 
(Cine or two crops) are allowed to lie fallow; when, in a 
remarkabh' brief time, they become more densely bushed than 
the surrounding untouched forest, and are thus easily recognised 
when passing through it. The plants are neatly placed in drill 
lilies, and tlie small pits, necessary for the good growth of tai'o, 
are dug round each plant wlien it ha.s got to a certain size. I 
have seen patches of much as two and three acres thus under 
cultivation Tlierc are no native implements except a pointed 
stick. Yams are scarcely grown, as thev do badly, and are very 
small when produceil : but tlie sweet potato, “Cape Warsb 
potato" — a most excellent vegetable (.something resemhling 
the appearance of the .sweet potato when growing, but far 
better eating), papaw, banana, plantain, .sugarcane, and piper 
liifi'l are all in cultivation, tlie root crops yielding, as a rule, 
two harvests in the year. 

There is no necessity for irrigation, as it rains on the average 
upon e\'ery other day : and there is no regular hardest time, the 
[uoduce being collected by men or women as reipiired. I have 
not heard of any religious ceremony in connection with agri- 
l•ultnre, nor any legends concerning its introductinn. though 
they may exist. 

Hlurerfi. 

Slavery certainly exists, but it is in .so mild a form that it is 
scarcely possible to detect master from man. I have never 
been able to elicit any facts concerning its introduction, propa- 
gation, or limits, or even if (iu so many words) it existed at all. 



i/I Xt'U' Crconjio, Suloiiioii IslmiJs. 40;> 

'VVlierever in these notes I have mentioned slaves, in ennnection 
with fighting, taking heads, and so on, it has all heen indirect 
information. 

Burinh. 

At a man’s death, the body is buried in a sitting attitude in 
the ground, the head being left exposed, surrounded with foiu 
pieces of wood placed like a collar, for five days (I was tijld by 
oue man), or until the ants have removed the flesh. The head 
is then taken, scrubbed clean with sand and salt water, and 
bleached in the sun until it is white. 

A man from another district (Xgarasi) told me that, when 
dead, a man was painted with the irsual white limed lines across 
the brows, and along the jaw bones — called mbumjn'inderi — and 
his hair whitened. After a feast, and a cry over liim, he was 
put in the ground ; not sitting, liut lying on the back, knees 
bent, arms bent at elbows, with hands hanging over the chest. 
■\Vhen the skull is cleaned, it is placed on the top of a stout 
post, on a sort of perch, and covered up with thatching. Two 
small triangular lu.iles are then cut in this thatch, opposite the 
eye-sockets of the enclosed skull, and near by it are placed 
pipes, tobacco, rings, and food. At the conclusion of a hundred 
days the skull is finally removed, and stored with those of the 
former chiefs, or hou.sehold lords, either all together in a little 
special ark, called a hho, or in separate house-shaped boxes, like 
diminutive dog-kennels : or .sometimes in scpiare recesses cut 
in an adjacent ruck. For the rest, when the flesh is completely 
gone olf the bones, they are gathered together, cleaned, and 
buried either in the ground, or sometimes in a cairn of stones, 
like an altar, about which various old " properties ” are disposed. 
Kara VO, the Iving of Xgara.si, departed from the usual burial 
custom by laying his brother out, unhurkd, on a rocky islet of 
the sea coast, until the flesh should have gone from the bones. 
A sort of framework of wood surrounded the body. 

During the hundred days all the property of the dead man 
i< sacred ; his coconuts, his canoe, his house — no one may 
touch them any more than if he were alive — and his dog^ if Py 
had one, is allowed to go and starve in the bush : no one will 
care for it. 

At one place I saw the skull, iirstead of being placed in a 
box, was put in the head of a large more than life-sized figure of 
a man carved in wood — intended to repiresent the deceased- — 
and similar statues of his wife and child stood alongside of it. 

Islands oft’ the coast are almost invariably chosen as places of 
sepulture. A grave, <01 oue island where I was camped for 
some time, consisted ot a scfuare heap of stones, about 3 feet 



404 


B, T. SoilERViLLK. — EtlinMjn'jjliicoJ Xotes 

high, ciiiitaiiiing the bones of the deceased ; a small, very ueatlv 
lutilt house, or hutch, containing his head (a ring hung outside 
the door) : and a little circular garden surrounded with stones, 
in whicli grew a young draccena plant, and one or two crotons. 
All three were placed, closelv adjacent, on a specially levelled 
plot, built up with stoiie.s, and having a slight embankment wall 
CPU one side. 

I believe it i.s customary to kill a .slave or slave.s on the 
tleath of a master, and in fact they are kept principally for 
this lea.sou. The death is not cruel, as the tomahawk falls on 
them unawaies, but unfortunately I can give no details of this 
<'Ustom. 

-Astyunoii'i y. 

There are names for the sun, moon, and stars generally. I 
■pjllected from one man the particular names for Orion, the 
Centaurs, Yenus, the Pleia<les, and one or two others, but am 
unalple to give them, having unfortunately mislaid the paper on 
which I wrote them. Daylight is divided by the height of the 
'Un ; the length (A day varies but little throughout the year, at 
a position so near the ecpiator, and the almost invariable twelve 
liours of daylight are divided into seven parts, regulated by the 
po.sitioii of the sun. Time, however, is reckoned not by days, 
but by nights. Tiiere are special names also for the various 
phases of the momi. They do not seem to calculate long periods 
of time at all — one full moon to another is as far as they 
usually go ; and crops come so often and irregularly, tliat it is 
impossible tu reckon by that standard. Temperature varies so 
little that a division of time by it has not occurred to them ; 
and Imiricaiies never reach their islands to mark a period for 
them eitlier. 

These are names for the following winds: — Xorth {Tolaorv). 
Xorth-East (iZ»v7ay),Ea.st {NijaHhn), Xorth-West {Tirn LiiKjijntu), 
West (Mij]iii) : all Southerly winds are called Tim Vein, and the 
night wind { Kiihniinni). Of these Hcrha (the Xortli-East 
wimC = ljlind. Xyufi-nt (East) = knife ; Tica Luiyijutu (X^orth- 
West) = uame of the district whence it blows; Tim, sig'iiifpng 
a mast, ppr .invthing uinight ; J/cA;/ (We.st) = Wet: KoJomv.ri' 
/"‘■rhcqi^ means “ocean seeking”: but of Tolaoru, and Taarrln I 
can give no etymology. 

Pro'pcvtii. 

Propertj^ seems to be well recognised : every one of the 
myriad islets of the great eastern lagoon has its understood 
' iwner, no matter if coconuts be growing there or not. Oroves 
of coconut trees are well protected by knpr.'i, as before described, 
as are also taro patches. Hunting rights over opossums on a 



it) Ncii' Georgia, Solomon Islands. 


405 


mail’s property are also protected by ]ioj)es. Property descends 
from father to son, and if there be more than one, it is dimded 
(equally) between them. If there be no son, the daughter 
succeeds : and if no child at all, a nephew (I presume either a 
brother’s or sister’s child) inherits. 

If there be no near relative, it is arranged by the village to 
whom the property is to belong. A wife may succeed to her 
late husband’s property — I presume if there are no children. 

Trade. 

The New Georgian natives are keen and close bargainers, 
and are fully the equal of the white man in cheating at trade. 
Among themselves, no doubt, there are exact standards of value, 
one village producing taro, while another makes shields, and so 
interchange is effected. Shell rings (hdkata) are a great medium 
of exchange ; and, in dealing with white folk, whales’ teeth, 
shell rings, and tobacco, may be taken to appro.ximate pounds, 
shillings, and pence ; the current value for these in our money 
is roughly : one whale’s tooth = £1, one hobita = about l.s. od.. 
a stick of tobacco = ^cl. 

Coconuts and copra are the articles in biggest sale to the 
white traders : •' ten on a string ” is the rule — that is ten 
interiors of coconuts — and two strings are usually tied together. 
The value varies very much, from one to three sticks of tobacco 
per string. Pearl shell and turtle shell are also articles of 
trade. 

The desire for whales’ teeth (called in the native tongue kalo) 
is one of their most remarkable distinguishing points, as they do 
not wear them as ornaments. However originated, a good 
whale’s tootk is now worth a very large amount of copra, and 
may be seen with other cherished possessions on a man’s grave. 
The goodness of a tooth is calculated as much by weight as by 
( lutward length, ilany teeth are pointed, and hollow from the 
root (like the “ kick ” of a bottle) for some distance up. These 
are the least valuable ; and an imliled tooth also is much pre- 
ferred to one that has been polished, and made to look smooth 
and white. 

They seem to make no use of their wealth however ; the mere 
fact of possession is sufficient, and kalo, shell rings, cahco, 
clothes — any article of European clothing is a great prize — are 
simply stored up, and scarcely worn or used at all. Neither is 
the desire for wealth very strong, ceitainly not strong enough 
to overcome laziness, except in rare instances. 

l>icmon of Labour . — All classes, both men and women, 
labom-, if the very slight tending of gardens necessary to grow 
food can be called laliour. In the eastern part, the treatment 

VOL. XXVI. 2 E 



406 


B. T. SOMEEViiiE. — JEthiiofjmphical Xotes 


of women is notably ;40od. I have but rarely seen them at 
work. Everybody is a fisherman, and a maker of copra. Such 
a trade as canoe maker seems more distinct, and is generally 
combined with that of wood carver : but I fancy that all have 
some idea of the art. 

Credit . — I am not aware whether the natives give and take 
credit among themselves ; but they often, and, I believe, usually, 
take it from, and give it to white traders. I am told that they 
are as loath to pay their obligations as any white man. 

Pleasures aiid Weiijhfs . — There seems to be no idea of sale by 
weight, the eye gauges the value of, for instance, a lot of taro ; 
and measure, such as of calico, is by the fathom or mjaica — the 
human span of arms — perhaps tliis has been introduced liy 
traders. Greater lengths, such as of a house, is Iw paces, each 
man being his own standard, by stretching out as far as he can. 

Marital Relations. 

I never tvitnessed any marriage ceremonies, but probably 
they exist in some form. Bera, the eastern chief, told me that 
if a man wishes to marry any girl, he goes to the father’s hut 
with a basket of food, as a present, to open proceedings. If this 
first talk seems favourable, he brings, when no one is looking, 
several large, roughly made, shell bracelets, cpiite useless for 
wear, and leaves them on the ground at the door of the hut. 
He then goes away. Next day he comes again and if his rings 
are still lying there he is rejected, but if taken inside he is 
accepted. The marriage then takes place, but Bera said theie 
is no feast or ceremony. The rings thus obtained are broken at 
their owner’s death into two piece.s, and placed on his grave. 

Another account, probably better, as it was delivered to me 
ill the native dialect, during our second year, is as follows 
If a man wishes to marry a chief’s daughter, he must bring 
thirty or forty articles, of which Icalo (whales’ teethj and lace 
(shields) must form some part ; but if he is after an ordinary 
girl, ten articles are sutticient. These he lays at the door of her 
father’s house. He then sits down opposite them, with the 
girl’s father and mother on the other side, and, the girl being 
sent away, “talk” (i.c., haggling) begins. If the would-be 
husband is accepted, the present is taken and the girl handed 
over. She cries (probably perfunctorily), but is chaffed by her 
father and mother until she agrees to be consoled. The fathers 
and mothers of the happy pair both make feasts, and everybody 
in their respective villages eat. If a man and a girl fall in love 
with one another, and the man is poor, and cannot afford to 
pay, they go away and hide together in the bush, until the 
parents cease to be offended, when they return to society, a 



i/i, JiCio Ixeoi'ijiii, So^vnuya Idadils. 


407 


married ceuple. {Note . — Tliere must be some restriction — if 
only that of shame — upon this, for under such circumstances ni > 
one would tro to the expense of makiin^ p>resencs when he could 
he married for nothing.) 

If a man marries a girl who has had an “ illegitimate” child, 
he accepts and adopts the hoy as his own. 

A widow may marry again if she wish, but not if the mother 
< )f her former husband is alive. 

A widower may marry again, also, provided that his late 
wife’s mother is not alive. 

Chihl-birth . — When a woman is to be eontined, she goes away 
into the bush with some other (and older) woman, and pre- 
sumably, a few men, who build two houses, one for her, and one 
for the old woman. After the birth, the mother remains twenty- 
live days in the bush, and then returns to the village, to her own 
house, a feast being held to celebrate the occasion. The child 
i.s given its name by both fatlier and motlier, and retains the 
same one throughout life. It is usually that of some tish, bird, 
or natural object, but never the same as that of the father. 

After the retuiii of the mother with the twenty-live days 
infant, she sleeps with the child, in a separate bed from her 
husband, until the baby’s teetli have come, or until it is begin- 
ning to talk, when cohabitation again begins. The child is 
suckled until it is able to walk aliout easily, it is then tried 
with a piece of tish (hui/oImi 1 name doubtful), and if it can eat 
and digest it, suckling is stoppeil, but if not, it is continued 
until the ti.sh can be eaten. 

There is no feast or celebration at the entrance to puberty of 
either a boy or a girl. . 

The wife apparently enters into the family of her husband on 
marriage, for the children belong to the father’s tribe. Poly- 
gamy is permitted, but I never saw a man with more than two 
wives, and by far the most usual was one wife only. All the 
unmarried girls being available, when desired, both for married 
ni’ single men, concubinage does not exist. I understand that 
the wives live together under one roof, but if one is preferred 
before the other I cannot say. 1 deduce that dit’orce cannot 
e.xist, since a wife is promptly tomahawked if she misbehave 
lierself ; the husband may do as he please, and it has not yet 
occurred to them that cruelty should be legal cause of separa- 
tion. 


tiV /< (s. 

The only game I witnessed wa.s called WitrahindaJd, and is 
played as follows, by either boys or men, but usually by lads of 
.seventeen or eighteen. 


2 E 2 



408 


B. T. SO-MEEViLLE. — Etliiioiji-ai^hii-cd N'otes 


Two playei'.s seat tliein.-jelvei uu the giouud, ahout six 
paces apart, placing in front of them, in line towards the 
opponent, two crlindrical tin trade nmtclihoxe.?, about one foot 
apart. 

There is a rery common and heautifvtl sea-coast tree that, 
after producing deliciously scented white blossoms, bears a 
.spherical nut about an inch in diameter. Each player provides 
himself with a nniuber of these, and the .scorers sitting by ust- 
others to score with. 

The players bowl these nut.^ alternately at their opponents’ 
match-boxes in order to upset them ; the scoring onlj' take- 
place after the rettirn ball from the opposite .side, and is as 
follow.s ; — 


(1.) 

A bowls to B, and upset.s the front bctx ; 

B bowls back and hits neither of A’s. 

A bowls to B, and upsets the hinder : 
B bowls back and hits neither of A’s. 

(d.i 

A bowls to B, and upsets both bo.xe.s: 

B howls back and upsets neither of A’s. 

(4.) 

A bowls to B, and upsets the front box : 
B liowls back and uj>.«ets A’s hinder box. 

(5-) 

A bowls to B, and upsets the hinder box : 
B bowls back and upsets A’s front box. 

( 6 .) 

A bowls to B, and upsets both boxes : 

B bowls back and upsets A’s front box, 

B bowls back and upsets A’s hinder box. 


1 


A scores 1 . 


■V 

1>A seore.s 2. 
J 


"j-A scores 5. 


~l B -scores 1 . 



scores 


1 . 


} 


A scores 4. 
A score- d. 


If, in any case, B howls hack to A, and upsets the same Ito.x 
or boxes that A did, there is no score. 

The game is sixteen points, and the winner of a game 
reniains playing, one of the other boj's taking the loser’s place, 
until he himself is defeated. With some players a hit only of 



ill Sew Georgia, Solomon Islands. 


409 


ihfc matchbox coimts as an “ upset ’’ ; liut usually, the box must 
be properly hcDwled over. 

Toys ot’ pieces of coconut fronds are made for children. 
Three of these are a “ whirligig,” a “ udiistler,” and a “ frigate- 
bird,” of which specimens have been sent to the Museum. The 
tirst is a little windmill which revolves when presented to the 
wind ; the second an arrangement of coconut leaf which, when 
violently swung round in the air, gives a sound like a large 
locust humming ; while the third is a rough representation of a 
bird balanced on the tip of a stick — as one balances forks on 
the edge of a tumbler — and gives the appearancs of a inbe'lemn 
(frigate-bird) sailing overhead. 

I tinderstand that canoe races take place, but I never saw 
one; racing canoes are specially built. 


IJii iieeti. 

We witnessed two dances, which were specially performed for 
us on board the i’eiiguin.” (Tne, of which I have given the 
words which accompanied it under the heading of '• Music,” 
was performed armed with shield and spear, the other with 
tomahawks. It gives but little idea <jf a war dance, either 
in tmie or measure. About ten men formeil in single file, 
a, pace or so apart, holding spear over shoulder, .shield in 
position and the whole body in a crouching attitude. As they 
sang the words of the song, they advanced with stealthy step, 
turning together the face and body alternately, and rhythmically, 
first to the right, then to the left, in time to the words of 
the song ; thus the vcr^p began with all turned to the right ; — 

“ Peka. peka — tuio ” (all tarn to left) 

(back to right j "peka, peka — turo” (left again). 

When it came to the second line, some of them sang notes 
in hurmony with the air, and the verse was sung over and 
over, as the company .slowly moved past, until all had 
gone 1 ly. 

The other dance, with tonudiawks, was iinue curious. A 
single line was formed a.s before, but the weapon, instead of 
being poised for a blow, was held sloped to the ground with the 
head downward ; the acorn, tisually carved at tlie butt end of 
the tomahawk, held at the li])s; and at each .slow forward step, 
all the men togetlier made the sound “ ft' — ft” with the lips, 
blowing air out, strongly, as loud as they could, and so slowly 
passed by. 

There is a third, a more active dance, with .<pear and shield 
n)dy, ill which the performer Imps from font to foot with body' 



410 


1!. T, So.MERVILLi;. — Et]i,iO(j,'>.ii>}duil 

Li-ouclit'd l.ehiiRl the shieM : if without the tir^t huger of 

the right hand is placed on top of tlie shield. Just where the 
e\es are glancing o^■er. However I never >aw more than one 
man doing it. so can give no details. 


Cirnuan iiic<idoi> , 

The roads aie simply a network of paths riiuuiug tlii'inigh the 
dense hush, for the most part engineered on the well known 
method of tullowing the ciests of the ridges. I had no good 
opportunity of testing the iiowei of making a tiack through the 
I'usli ; but my imprcs.-iou is, that although extremely good at 
picking' npi and following a track they have already been Iry, 
they aie not much 1 letter than anyliody else in a new country. 

.Streams are bridgeil by a fallen tree wliere necessary, and 
wading impractical de. 


C'-uifoct tritli Whitr Ilno.v. 

The only white jieople with whom the Xe\v ( icorgiaus ha\ e 
.’s yet come into contact aie tradei.s, and men-of-war’.s men. 
honsideiing all things, they hax e kej)t themselves '■ riglit end 
ui) ” fairl}- avell, and no sign of the decrea''e of the race from 
cither ot these cause, s is vi.sible. At the same time, in the 
ea.steiii paits, the aumlier of the population has gone down with 
great rapidity: an old trader of twenty yeans’ experience told me 
that in hh recollection the numbers had terribly decreased. 
Thi^ to a large e.xteiit is jirohably due to head-hunting, wliicli 
has, as already de.scribed, almost annihilated some villages, and 
driven the wretched remnant hack into the hush; thus giving 
the appeariuiee of an absolute depopulation, the usual white 
man .seeing no more ot the country than is visible from the sea. 
Xo doubt head-hunting has alway.s been their custom ; but it i.- 
proba.ble that the advent of lifles, and especially of iron toma- 
hawks, during the last forty or fifty years, has largely increased 
its fatal effects; .so that wlieie one man’s head was taken in old 
times, three or more are taken iniwadays. 

Another factor lia.s been the bonilmrding.s by nien-of-war. 
which though they have not perhaps very materially decreased 
the actual numliers, yet, .“iniilarly to head-hunting, by driving 
the native- back into tlie liilbs, have given the appearance of 
depopulation along tlie coa.st. The.se bombardments, however, 
through being somewhat indi-Seriniinate, have created a terror 
that will, when the islaiuls come to be settled, be hard to eradi- 
cate. 

On the whole, then, accepting the evidence of the ohl- 
e.-tablished tradei liefore mentioiied Qlr. Wickliaiii), the race 



ill jVeic Georgia, Solomon Islamh. 


411 


lias most ceitaiuly diiiiiuislied rapidly during the last ten or 
twenty years, the chief cause being head-hunting. Of the 
results of going to labour in Queensland, 1 am not prepared to 
speak, but I fancy that recruiting in Xew Georgia has never 
been very largely prosecuted ; certainlj' no labour ship ’ came 
near this group during our stay. 

It is logical to suppose that unless some sort of government be 
started which will prevent head-hunting, e.specially now that 
we have proclaimed a protectorate over half the Solomon group, 
the races inhabiting Xew Georgia v;ill gradually be exterminated. 
Except from a scientific point of view, I think one migbt be 
almost reconciled to this dispemsation. The natives have their 
good points, certainly, but their bad are so ruueli more con- 
spicuous that the elimination of the race would he no great 
loss to the world. M'omt of all their bad points almost, i.s 
tlieir incredible and incurable laziness — the heritage of all 
Pacific races — the result, no doubt, of the extreme fertility of 
a land which causes them no occasion to work in order to live. 

If cultivated l.iy a more industrious and energetic people, 
these islands are sufficiently fertile to produce satisfactory 
crops of tea and rice besides, many other valuable articles of 
trade, such as cott'ee, timber, jiearls, turtle-shell, and so on. 
Xo one knows what mineral wealth there may be. The sea 
teems witli fish. Tlieie are no wild beasts, and the snakes, 
which are not numerous, are said to be all harmless. 

A step in the direction of civilisation ha.s lately been taken 
by the appointment, by the Eiji Government, of l\Ir. C. M. 
Woodford as a " llesident ” with head-cjuarters (I Irelieve) in the 
beautiful island o£ Gnadaleanar ; and a second has been made 
by the Melauesiau ilissioii, which in having already 

performed civilising wonders in the adjacent island of Florida, 
sent a first detachment, under Itr. Welchman, to Xew tieorgia. 
The white traders have, naturally enough, poured into the 
native ear, ever since they first established themselves in the 
group, stories — need one .say hideously false — eoneeruing the 
inissionaiies and their doings, calculated to iu-spire the utmost 
terror and repugnance, and designedly sufficient to prevent the 
natives from allowing, fur one instant, the establishment among 
them of a worse set of fiu'eigners than even the traders them- 
selves ; a set. moreover, who did not even bring with them the 
redeeming ble.ssings of firearms and gin. Aeeordingly, on the 
arrival of the " tiontl'iern b'loss all the eastern natives 
promptly decamped into the hudi, and not one single hoy 
did the mission collect for their college in Ilorida. 

As I had suiiplied the llisliop of ^Melanesia with a full 
account of the eastern district, it-^ chief men, and my ci.dleague’s 



412 B. T. Somerville. — Efhtioiji'iipJiicul m CTi-ui'gni, 


Weiuall) dic-tioiuny nt' the language as far as we knew 
it ; and as, while we were living in their midst, we had indus- 
triously attempted to comhat the stories concerning the mission- 
aries the natives had already received, this must he considered a 
most disheartening failure. 

I hear a second attempt i.^ to he made this year tl896), and I 
jiope it will he more successful. 



PBEPABED HEAD. BUBIAS-t, N'EW GEORGIA. 














Ananijl Gitwral Meeting. 


41;,! 


AXXUAL GENERAL MEETING. 

.r.V^'L’AEY 26X11, 1897. 

E. W. BeabeOOK, Esq., F.S.A., Presultnt, m the Chair. 

The Minutes ef the last ileetiiig were read and signed. 

The Chaiem.ax declareil the ballot open, and appointed 
Gr. Leitner, and Mr. 11. 15. Holt, Scrutineers. 

The Treasurer, Mr. A. L. Lewis, read the following Report : — 

Teeasit.er’s RErouT roE 1896. 

The income of the Institute for the year 1896 was £5:30 7s. P'A, 
being £16 os. Id. more than the income for 189.". Tlie sale of 
publications was iiicrea.sed by £20 %. IJ., while the subscrip- 
tions were reduced by £4 As., but this reduction is accounted 
for liy the fact that only one life composition was received 
ill 1896 as against two in 1805. 

The e.xpenditure for the year 1896 wa.s £515 lO.s. od., as 
against £511 15.s. 3d., pnqoerly chargeable in 1895. The dif- 
ference is small and the items composing it need no explanation. 
The most sati.sfactory point to be noted is that our income has 
exceeded our expenditure by £14 17s. 4d. in consequence of the 
increased sale of our publications. 

The liabilities at the end of 1896 (other than our moral 
liability to life meinber.s) were : — 

£ d. 

Rent for one ipiarter . , . . . . ;!;3 15 0 

t/oKr/od, one number, s.iy .. .. 50 u 0 

“ Anthropological Notes and yueries " .36 5 4 

Sundries, say . . . . . . . 14 19 8 

Total . . . . . , £135 0 0 

The asset.'^ at the .same date were £600 Metropolitan L'on- 
■solidated Stock (worth about £720), cash in hand and at the 
Rankers £167 lo.s. lid., some unpaid subscri]itions, and the 
library, furniture, and stock of laiblieations. 

A. L. LEW1.S, 

Tre/isnrer. 



lloei‘iyi1s (Hid Vaymculs fur the Year 



Eitamim'il nn<l louiid coi rccl, 



BejKi-ji of the Council. 415 

The Secretary, Mr. O. ^I. Daltox, read the following 
Eeport : — 


Eepout of the Cocxcil of the Axthropolooical Ixstitlte 
OF Great Britain and Ieelaxo for the year 189(3. 

The Council ha.s to report that during the past year ten 
Ordinary Meetings and one special meeting have been held, in 
addition to the Annual ^Meeting. 

In the course of the year the following numher.s of the 
Jvvciwl have been issued: Nos. 94, 95, 9(3, and 9T, containing 
440 pages of letterpress, and illirstrated by 23 plates and several 
woodcuts. 

The Library is in full working order, many valuable additions 
having been made in the course of the year. The Catalogue 
has been kept up to date. 

A scheme for classifying negatives and photographs in the 
possession of the Institute, and for the establishment of a 
loan collection of Anthropological lantern slides for the use of 
Fellows was under the consideration of the Liluary Committee 
at the close of the year. 

The retirement of ^Ir. Doubleday has deprived the Council 
of the services of a most etticient Assistant -Secretary. i\Ir. -i. 
A. "Webster has been appointed in his place. Nineteen new 
Fellows have been elected during the year, viz., three honoraiy 
and siA'teen ordinary Fellows; tifteen liav(> retired or died. 
The number of Corresponding Fellows was twenty-six. 

In the following table the present state of the Institute, with, 
respect to the number of its mend.iers, is compared with its con- 
dition at the corresjtonding jieriod of last year; — 


Honorary. 

Con’e>ponding. 

Compounders. Ordinary. 

Total. 

Januur^ 1st, 189i'. | 44 

25 

1 sc 202 

357 

Since elected . . 3 

1 

1 16 


Decea>c(.l or re- 
tired . . 


3 12 

1 

1 

January 1st, 1897 47 

26 

84 200 

, 362 


The following are the names of the Fellows whose deaths 
have lieen reported during the year ; — 


Mr. Horatio Hale, Honorary ^Member. 

IMr. IVilliani Lockhart, Corresponding ilcinbcr ; and, 




Fl'iiidciit’s Address. 


41 >3 


Mr. J. G. Pliilpot. 

Mr. J. M^alker. 

Capt. J. Keene. 

.4ir J. Prestwicli. 

JJr. J. L. H. Liuii'dou-Down. 


Dr. John Xottingluim. 
Dr. Wilbertbree Smith. 
Dr. Eobert Brown. 

Mr. A. Pulf(n’d. 

Mi.ss E. E. Smith. 


The Keports were adopted on the motion of the Peesidext. 
seconded by Dr. Gaesox. 


AXXIVEESAEY ADDEESS. 

]’>y E. W. Beadeooe, Frfskloif. 


COXTEXXS. 

1. Keti'ospect of Sixty Years. , 10. Papers on Ethnography of .tu-. 

2. Present Position of Anthropology, i tralasia. 

.3. Papers on Physical Anthropology, i 11. Papers on Linguistics. 

1. Papers on Prehistoric Ai-chteology. ■ 12. Journal of the Institute. 

5. Sociology ; Hr. Herbert Spencer, 13. Losses by Heath. 

6. Papers on Ethnography of Europe. 14. British Association. 

7. Papers on Ethnography of Asia. j 13. Ethnographic Bureau. 

8. Papers on Ethnography of Africa. ' 16. Ethnographic Surrey. 

0. Papers ou Ethnography of 17. Chiklhood Society. 

America. < 18. Hartland’s “ Legend of Perseus.” 

19. The Problem of Transmission. 

1. Ritiris^Kct of Years. 

I HAVE observed, in the Presidential addre.s.ses delivered before 
■some other scieutihe societies, that tlie keynote has been given 
'oy the circiim.staiioe that Her Majesty is now in the sixtieth 
year of her reign ; — a reign longer, and also happier, more 
glorious, and more t'rnitfnl than any previous reign in Eiiglisli 
Iiistor}'. The Fellows of the Anthropological Iirstitute will in 
no way Ite behind any of Her Majesty’s lovtil subjects in 
'■ongTatulatiug her upon this event, and in heartily wishing 
tliat it may still be granted to lier in health and wealth long 
to live, and that the remaining years of iier reign may he even 
happier than the past, and still more fruitful in all that tends 
to the glory and welfare of the country, in which the progress 
of scientific research and di.scovery are tu no slight degree 
involved. The addre.sses to the other .societie.s to which I 
have referred have in general dwelt upon the advances which 
have been made in the branch of science with whicli e.ieh 



PrfsiJ e)it's Add re j ■!. 


417 

.society was eoiicemed during the sixty year.s in (|uestiou. If 
1 were to follow the example I should have to go hack to the 
very beginning of anthropology, for as a science it did not 
exist when Her Majesty ascended the throne. 

If anybody had consulted the “ Encyclopu-dia Britaunica ” 
in the year 1837, he would have found Anthropology defined 
as “ a discourse upon human nature ; among divines, that 
manner of expression by which the inspired writer.s attribute 
himiaii parts and pas.sions to God." Had he referred to Johnson’.s 
Dictionary, he would have obtained the detinition that Anthro- 
pologj’ is the “ doctrine of anatomy : the doctrine of the form 
and structure of the body of man.’' Liiinteus, Buffou, and 
others had rightly treated man as a part of zoology. Blumen- 
bach and a Dr. John Hunter had both in the year 1775 
delivered discourses on the natural varieties of man : ljut 
both the.se treatises, remarkable as they were, remained in the 
form of Latin Doctorate theses. Prichard’s great work on 
the physical history of man first appeared in 1813. These 
were the materials the student liad for research in anthropology 
in the year 1837. 

The Ethnological Society of Loudon was not founded until 
1843 ; ethnology was not adopted by the British Association 
until 1846, when an ethnological subsection of Section I) was 
presided over by Prichard, with Eichard King as Secretary . 
The Anthropological Society of london was not founded until 
1863 ; arid Anthropology was not adopted by the British 
Association until 1866, when for that year only an anthropo- 
logical department of Section D was presided over by Alfred 
E. 'VYallace, with W. Turner and E. B. Tylor as Secretarie.s. 
In 1869 and 1870, Departments of Ethnology were presided 
over by E. B. Tylor and J. Evans ; in 1871 to 1883 a Depart- 
ment of Anthropology was attached to the Section of Biologv ; 
in 1884 Anthropology became Section H, and has since then 
been not the least attractive, successful, and useful of the 
sections into which the field of science is mapped out bv the 
British Association. This position it seems likely to hold. 



4 IS 


siilctifs 


'1. Pi'csi'iit Po-iitioii oj A.ittJii’ofioIo[iij. 

Our Ijiickward glauee over the sixty years ot Her Majesty’s 
reign, therefore, covers the whole history of Anthropology as 
a science: and v,-e have but to compare the treatise on Anthro- 
pology, which was contributed by Professor Tylor to the 9th 
Edition of the “ Eucyclop;edia Britamiica,” with the brief 
definition of the subject aud of its theological namesake, which 
appeared in the 5th Edition of that work, to see what an 
absolute creation the modern .science of Anthropology is. The 
author of that masterly treatise shows not merely how compre- 
hensiva and far-reaching are the claims and the province of 
Anthropology, but also how much has been done since the 
(lays of Blumenbach to establish it upon a sound basis. 

If there be any among us who think that tlie status of Anthro- 
pology as one of the exact sciences is not what it should be, 
they should bear in mind that us yet it is the youngest of the 
sciences. The other sciences that have made enormous progress 
during the period of sixty years entered upon that period with 
an assured position and a ready-made grammar. These the 
anthropologist has had to build up for himself. This being 
considered, the progress of anthropology will bear comparison 
with that of any other science. 

With this preface I may now proceed to point out to what 
extent the labours of this Institute have contributed to that 
progress during the past year. I shall brietly call your atten- 
tion to the papers which have been read, arranging them in 
the order which T adopted in my last address. We have had 
no sensational discovery brought before us, to rival the ex- 
hibition of PithccrnitJu-opi's last year, but we have had many 
interesting and valuable communications. 

■ '). Pajjers oii Physia'l Antliroiwloijif. 

In the Department of Physical Anthropology, we owe to the 
influence of my predecessor, Professor iMacalister, two excellent 
papers. In one, Mr. E. .J. Horton-Smith.of St. John’s, compared 



Freskhut’s Address. 


419 


the cranial characteristics of the South Saxons with those of 
some of the other races of South Britain, and arrived at the 
following results ; — first, that in the round harrows are to be 
found two types of skulls, one like the long barrow skull, 
while the other type is more British, leading to the inference 
that the broad-headed immigrants of the Bronze age con- 
cj^uered the Xeohthic race, and then fused with them ; second, 
that the South Saxons are not an absolutely pure race, having 
a small amount of British blood in them ; and the Wessex 
Saxons are less pure, having more fre(|uently intermarried with 
the British population. In the other ilr. Myers, of Caius, gave 
an account of 63 skulls from a field in the neighbourhood 
of Brandon, Suffolk, recently secured for the Cambridge 
Vniversity Anatomical iMuseiun, and arrived at the following 
equally valuable results ; that while there are skulls of three 
or four distinct types, brachycephalic, dolichocephalic, and sub- 
dolichocephalic, the larger number of skulls exliibit characters 
intermediate between those various tj’pes ; and that the burial 
ground belonged, therefore, to a people which had for some 
time been living in a state of friendship and intermarriage, 
although composed of ethnically diverse races. These papers 
afford welcome confirmation of the doctrine of continuity, laid 
down by Prof. McKenny Hughes in the admirable address 
which he delivered to the Antiquarian Section of the Koyal 
Archteological Institute at its Canterbury meeting last July. 
I make this observation with the more pleasure that it fell to 
my lot, two days later, not having heard Professor Hughes’s 
address, to offer arguments in the same direction to the same 
audience, based on the History of Kent, though I fear Professor 
Hughes would decline to accompany me on the path by which 
I arrived at a conclusion common to both. 

4. Papers oa Preliistorir Arehaology. 

In the Department of Prehistoric Archteology, we were 
favoured by Mr. Seton-Karr with an exhibition of the 
remarkable collection of stone implements discovered by him 



420 


Pitsiilent’s 


ill Souiiililaml. Tlie.^e again are most important documents for 
tlie consideration of tlie questions whether and where the 
connecting link exists between the paheolithic and the 
neolithic periods of time. That the progres.s of humanity 
must ha\-e been continuous from the earliest ages to the 
present is a theory which has its attractions for all of us, 
and we cannot fail to keep our eyes open for indications 
of that continuity and traces of the steps in the one rude 
art of the period whicli mark its successive stages. The 
e.xperienced and cautious mind of Sir John Evans was im- 
pressed with the conviction that in Mr. Seton-Karr’s discoveries 
one of these steps is perceivable. Coming to a later stage, we 
have to thank Dr. Gladstone for his paper on the transition 
from the Copper to the Bronze age : and Mr, Myre.s, for the 
yiaper in which he traced copper from its home in Cyprus 
to Hissarlik and Egj-pt. Indeed, I cannot but think tliat 
continuity is in the air, for it was most ably asserted from 
another point of ^•iew in our colleagne Mr. Arthur Evans’s 
presidential address to the Anthropological Section of the 
British Association in September. 

0 . Sociology : Me. Herbert Spciicrr. 

I do not recollect any communications belonging specially 
to the domain of general sociology ; but 1 take the opportunit}’ 
of mentioning that branch of our studies in order to offer my 
respectfid congratulations to Mr. Herbert Spencer on the 
completion of his great text book on that subject. I have had 
the gratiticatiou of joining in a rec[uest to him, with which we 
are all glad that he will comply, to permit some enduring 
memorial of that occasion to be made. Mr. Herbert Spencer 
prefers, I believe, the atmosphere of his own study to that of a 
meeting room ; but I do not forget that he, on one occasion, in 
the year 1875, contributed a paper, and on another, attended a 
meeting of this Institute, and joined in a discussion. The 
paper was a very masterly summaiy of the whole subject of 
comparative human psychology, intended to be a guide to 



President’s Address. 


421 


the psyeh(4ogical section of the Institute in tlie work it was 
then about to undertake. 

G. Papers on Etlmorjraphy of Europe. 

In the ethnography of Europe we have had two papers from 
Dr. Montelius, whom we have just added to our list of Honorary 
Fellows. He visited England in the autumn, but was not able 
to stay long enough to read his papers in person. They were 
laid before you by our Secretary, aud excited some discussion. 
In part tliey were a response to the invitation of Mr. Arthur 
Evans, as president of the Anthropological Section at the 
Liverpool meeting, for papers relating to Eastern Europe and 
the origin of its peoples. It is always satisfactory when an 
anthropologist of the eminence of Dr. Montelius is willing to 
lay before a public audience and submit to discussion views 
that he has formed ; and researches such as his must be in- 
structive even to those who do not accept his conclusions. In 
the present instance, there is no doubt much to be said on 
both sides of the cpiestions he raised, and his papers, when they 
appear in our Journal, svill afford the foundation for theii* 
settlement. Besides Dr. ilontelius, we have added to our 
list of Honorary Fellows, Mr. Holmes of the United States 
of America, and Dr. Eudolf Martin, of Zurich. 


r 


7. Papers on EthiWfjrap]i.y of Asia. 

With regaril to Asia, Col. Woodthorpe, to whom we were 
indebted in 1881 for a valuable paper on the wild tribes of the 
Xaga hills on what was then our Xorth East frontier of India, 
has given us a very effective and picturesrpie demonstration of 
the costumes and other peculiarities of the Shans aud the 
variety of hill tribes inhabiting the States on the Mekong, in 
Indo-China, now the eastern limit of our Burmese territories. 

Miss Gertrude IM. Godden has contributed a monograph 
upon the Xagfi and other frontier tribes of Xorth-East India, 
in which the knowledge we possess from various sources of 
those wild hill tribes is ably digested and systematised. 


VOL. XXVI. 


o 


F 



422 


tit's ^ddvCSS, 


The Eev. Walter Weston favoured us vitli inforniatiou as 
to the customs and superstitions of the people inhabiting the 
great range of mountains in Central Japan, known as the 
Shinano-Hida range, gathered by him upon several visits to 
those highlands made during the six yeai’s in which he was 
British Chaplain at Kobe. 

Mr. Creagh described some unusual forms of burial practised 
by the people of the East coast of Borneo; Mr. "Wray, curator 
of the museum at Perak, furnished some important information 
on the cave-dwellings of that district, and animadverted on the 
report of Mr. Everett that they presented no special anthro- 
pological interest ; and H.H. the Eauee of Sarawak, Lady 
Brooke, has presented the Institute with a tine collection of 
t}'ihcal photographs of natives of the Eajah’s territory, taken 
by herself. l\Ir. C. M. Pleyte has kindly sent us for publi- 
cation a hitherto inedited legend of the Creation current in 
Batak, enriched with learned annotations. 

Dr. Garson has favoured us with an account of Mr. M. Y. 
Poitnian's recent observations on the Andamanese. 

Mr. Balfour has exhibited a variety of native Indian pre- 
parations of hemp, and related the life history of an Aghori 
fakir. 


8. Papers on Ethnof/niphy of Afraa. 

For Africa, we have to thank Mr. Swan for notes on his 
explorati(jn of the ruined buildings in Mashonaland described 
as temples, .similar to those at Zimbabwe discovered by Mr. 
Bent, which are of deep interest, as relics of a long departed 
civilisation and religion. Mr. E. M. Connolly has favoured us 
with the result of his vigilant observations of the habits of the 
primitive filk of Fanti-land, on the West coast, in the form of 
a comprehensive paper on their social life, including a very 
considerable body of information as to the language. Dr. 
Sclater kindly exhibited a board on which a game resembling 
draughts is played in Xyas.saland, and Mr. Bead contributed 
some observations on the subject of similar games. Mr. 



Presidciit’s Address. 


423 


Balfour exhibited a remarkable Ijovr and arrows found in Egypt, 
but believed to Ije of Assyrian origin. 

9. Papers on EtluiopraplLy of Anv riea. 

For America, we have had a commnnication from our eminent 
colleague, Professor D. G. Briuton, which I did not include 
among the coiitritjutions to Prehistoric Ai’chasology, because it 
gives the weight of his great autliority to the statement that in 
the Eastern United States, a region in which he has visited 
most of the important stations and seen most of the typical 
collections, the oldest stone implements present nothing in 
form or appearance, and have not in the history of their dis- 
covery any sure connections, which would convey them in time 
or in art-development to an earlier people or cult\ire than that 
of the American Indian, as he was found by the earliest 
European voyagers. "We had also a discussion, initiated by 
Mr. Osbert Howarth, in which that gentleman’s suggestion of a 
migration of Asiatic culture to Mexico was found not to be 
supported. Mr. Read exhibited to us a remarkable wooden 
mask from the E'orth-'West coast. Our Hon. Fellow, Mr. 
Horatio Hale, sent four Huron wampum belts for exhibition, 
accompanied with a study of the historical and mnemonic 
uses of those symbols, which was supplemented by Professor 
Tylor in such a way as to throw a flood of light on this obscure 
but most interesting subject. The news of the death of Mr. 
Hale, well descrilied as the Xestor of American ethnology, on 
December 29th, has been received by all of us with great regret. 

10. Papers on Ethnoyriqduj of Austra.htsia. 

For Australasia, we have to acknowledge a communication 
from IMr. Etheridge on Australian shields, more particularly 
the Drunmung, which has been published with some excellent 
illustrations ; and an exhibition by Major-General Pobley of 
a number of specimens from his unrivalled collection of dried 
Maori heads, which he has since more fully described in his 
pleasantly written and well illustrated work on IMoko or Maori 

2 F 2 



424 


P result tit’ s JLihlrcss. 

tattooing, in which that painful and dithcult art is skilfully 
displayed. Lieut. Somerville’s notes on Xew Georgia were of 
great interest, and the figures svhich accompanied them were 
exceptionally lifelike. 

11. Pcipirs on Liajaistics. 

In the Department of Linguistics, besides the contribution of 
3tlr. Connolly on the lauguage.s of the ITantis, to which I have 
already referred, we have to thank our member, !Mr. Sidney 
Eay, for a vocabulary and general notes on the language of 
Makura, in the Central Xew Hebrides, compiled from informa- 
tion given by the Eev. Oscar Hichelseu, Eresbyterian missionary 
on the island of Tongoa. 

O 


12. Join'nal of the Institute. 

In addition to these papers which have Ijeeu read at our 
meetings, we liave to acknowledge valuable critical reviews of 
new works, contributed by Professor Keane, Miss Euckland, 
and others, to the “ IMisceUanea Antlirupologica” in our .Journal, 
and also the excellent Bibliography wliich is prepared each 
quarter by our indefatigable .Secretary. The Institute is deeply 
indebted to that gentleman for his devotion to its welfare, and 
for the exertions whicli have led to so many interesting and 
successful meetings having been held during the year. 

13. Losses h)j Death. 

I am glad to find that we have not this year to record any 
loss by deatli comparable to that which we sustained by the 
death of Huxley in 1895. The laws of nature, however, exact 
from us each year a tribute of worthy members, whose memory 
we cherish ; and there are several of those who have joined the 
great majority during the past year whose services I must take 
this opportunity of recording. 

Dr. Laiigdon Down was elected a member in June, 1865; he 
became a member of Council in December, 1866, and served 
several years in that capacity. Beyond an obituary notice 



Pir&iih'nfs Address. 


425 


of a pupil of his, I do not find that he contributed to our 
transactions, though he was an eminent alienist and patient 
investigator. 

Dr. Wilberforce Smith was elected a Fellow of the Institute 
on March 25, 1890, and at the meeting of December 9 in the 
same year, joined in the discussion of Lady Welby’s paper on 
“ An apparent paradox in IMental Evolution.” At our meeting on 
May 8, 1894, he read an excellent paper on “ the Teeth of ten 
Sioux Indians,” in which he investigated the curious fact of the 
superiority of savage races over civilised man in respect of the 
development and freedom from decay of their teeth. To this 
he afterwards added a note, in which he suggested that the 
ancient Eomans owed the like supeinority over ourselves to 
their disdain of the knife and fork, and supported his view by 
quotations from classic writers. He also contributed several 
papers to the Anthropological Section of the British Association 
and served for some years on the Anthropometric Laboratory 
Committee and the Committee on Feeble-minded Children. In 
him we have to regret the loss of a colleague of high competence, 
from whom other communications of value might have been 
expected, 

ily dear and honoured friend, ilr. William Lockhart, of 
Blackheath, had been a corresponding member of this Institute 
from its beginning, having been previously a corresponding 
member of the Ethnological Society. Xearly forty years ago 
he contributed a paper to the Transactions of that Society on 
the “ Miautsze,” or Aborigines of China, and produced for 
inspection a series of drawings of those hill-tribes, made by 
Chinese artists. As far back as the year 18o4 he qualified 
himself as a surgeon, and sliortly afterwards became the 
pioneer meLlical missionary to China, where he remained for 
thirty years. He married a sister of Mr. (afterwards Sir 
Harry) Parkes, and that estimable lady survives him. Tim 
very interesting biography of that able diplomatist, lately 
published, contains much information communicated by Mr. 
and ill's. Lockhart as to his early career. For many years 



426 


Presu^ unt s jtihlre-is. 


past, ill'. Loekliai’t had been an active director of the London 
ilissionary Society, and in that capacity took great interest 
in the Society’s Ethnological collections, now in the British 
iliiseum. He had large collections of his own, principally 
relating to China, some of which are now in the Museum 
of Practical Cteology at Jerun-n Street, and others at the 
British Museum, but a considerable iiumlier remained in his 
own possession. Though he had not for a long period attended 
our meetings, I had freciuent opportunities of observing the 
interest he took in our transactions, and discussing anthro- 
pological cpiestious with him. He became a Fellow of the 
Eoyal College of Surgeons in 1857. 

The Bert IV. IVyatt Gill, LL.D., was another of the many 
remarkable men who have been selected by the London Mis- 
sionary Society to minister among uncivilized peoples, and 
have used the opportunities of investigation thus afforded them 
for the benefit of anthropological science. He contributed a 
paper to this Institute on Februai’y 8, 1876, “ On the Origin of 
the South Sea Islands, and on some Traditions of the Hervey 
Islands,” and on that occasion he remarked, •' I have spent 
about tsventy-two years in the Hervey Gi’oup in the South 
I’acitic. Sliut out to a great extent from the civilised world, I 
enjoyed great facilities for studying the natives themselves and 
their traditions.” In 1890 he contributed to our Journal some 
information as to childbirth customs in the Loyalty Islands, 
obtained by ilr.s. (.fill from the natives. He was also the author 
of several works giving in a popular form many particulars of 
native manners and custom.s, e.y., “ Life in the Southern Sea.s, 
or Scenes and Incidents in the South Pacific and Xew Guinea.” 
On his last retuin to the Pacific, he went as general superin- 
tendent of the Society’s Missions in that part, and had his 
headquarters at Sydney, FT.S.W. On one of his visits to this 
country he came to reside in the neighbourhood where I was 
then living, and I had the good fortune to make his personal 
acquaintance ; and I can but address to his memory the last 
words of a note he wrote to me as lie left England for Barotonga 
“ Yale, Amice I ” 



President's Address. 


427 


Sir Joseph Prestwicli was also a Fellow of our Institute, 
and though his scientific honours were gained as a geologist, 
we bear in mind a recent occasion on which he exhibited a 
remarkable collection of extremely rude flint implements, found 
in Kent, and communicated a paper thereon which was the 
subject of much discussion at the time, and has led to the 
continuance of the ventilation of the question of a pre-pala;o- 
lithic race by paper’s subsequently laid before us by other 
authors expressing different views upon it. In a communication 
which I have been permitted to address to the current number 
of the “ Zoologist ” by the courtesy of its editor, our former 
director, Mr. Distant, I have attempted briefly to indicate 
some of the grounds upon which, as it seems to me, the con- 
clusions which Sir Joseph Prestwich indicated on that occasion 
may be maintained. 

Since the close of the year, the name of Dr. Frederic John 
Jlouat, the exphu'er of Andaman, is to be added to our list of 
losses by death. 

14. British Associafiun. 

At the meeting of the British Association in Liverpool, the 
excellent suggestion made by the President of the Anthropo- 
logical Section, that the discussions in that section should centre 
round the -N-arious racial problems of Eastern Europe, was 
fruitful, and though it may have seemed to some that it gave to 
the section a rather pronounceil tinge of archteology, the other 
branches of our science wei’e not neglected. 

In your name I joined in the expression of sympathy with 
the movement in Holland for celebrating the centenary of the 
birth of Andreas Iletzius. Our Secretary has since emphasized 
that sympathy by a written communication on the part of the 
Council. 

15. An Ethnoijraphic Bureau. 

A paper of great practical importance was read by our 
colleague Mr. C. H. Piead, on the subject of the establishment 
of an Ethnographical Bureau. It was remarked in the dis- 



428 


President’s Address. 


eussioii that every one of my predecessors in tliis chair had 
advocated this most essential undertaking, and I will not be 
the first to fail in doing so. An empire like that of the United 
Kingdom ought certaial}' to possess some central establishment 
in which a knowledge of the races of the empire might be 
acquired. The splendid precedent of the Bureau of Ethnology 
attached to the Smithsonian Institute, confined as it practically 
is to the races which formerly existed on the American conti- 
nent, shows what might be done on the much wider field of 
inquiry that we possess, if only the public spirit of the nation 
and its rulers could be awakened to the priceless value, not 
to say the absolute necessity, of the enterprise. I cannot use 
more forcible language than that of my immediate predecessor 
on this point : “ It is little short ” (said Professor Macalister) 
“of a national disgrace that in the largest empire of the world, 
within whose bounds there are nearly as many separate peoples 
and tribes and kindreds and tongues as in all tlie other nations 
put together, there is no Imperial Department liaving for its 
functions to collect and classify the facts of the physical, 
psychical, and etldcal history of our fellow subjects.” 

16. The Etlinofjrapliic Survci/. 

The Ethnographic Survey Comnuttee of the British Associa- 
tion, upon which this Institute is largely represented, has 
continued its useful work. The collection of pliysical observa- 
tions from various parts of the United Kingdom is steadily 
growing, and at the same time collections of folk-hme are being 
made. One such, accumulated in Dumfries-shiie, is appended 
to the Committee’s report for the pre.sent year, as part of the 
work done for the Committee by the Eev. Dr. Walter Gregor. 
Our Fellow, Mr. Gomnie, the founder and former jiresident of 
the Folk-Lore Society, read before the Association a masterly 
pjaper on the scientific treatment of folk-lore. That pa 2 )er is 
appended at length to the report of the Committee, and its 
perusal and study will well rejjay tho.se wlio desire to know 
how folk-lore should be studied. Mr. Gomme has, I think. 



Fresidenfs Address, 


429 


devised a plan by which the strange lieliefs and customs, which 
have come down to our own times from our uncivilised fore- 
fathers, may have a definite meaning and significance extorted 
from them. It is gratifying to find that in Switzerland, in the 
United States of America, and in Canada, Ethnographical Survey 
Committees have been appointed to work on the lines laid down 
by the British Association Committee. 

17. Childhood Society. 

Another Committee, associated with Section H, has now 
completed its labours ; that hn- dealing with the backward and 
dl-developed children who abound in schools. This is a subject 
in which Sir Douglas Galton has shown a keen interest, and 
it has been followed up l)y Dr. Francis Warner, an eminent 
physician, with great skill and ability. It was felt, how- 
ever, that the problem, as one of anthropology, has now 
been exhausted, and that it has become rather a cpiestion of 
social economies than of science. Some gentlemen and ladies 
interested in its further development have formed themselves 
into a Childhood Society, which it is hoped may be of some 
practical utility. I have had great pleasure in associating 
myself with them, and our colleague, Mr. E. Biddulph Martin, 
M.P., has become the treasurer of the Society. AVhile it is ti.> 
a certain extent a departure fr<im strict anthropology, its 
labours will, I hope, tend to enlarge our knowledge of infant 
life, and of the causes which so often render it unpromising if 
not hopeless unless dealt vith in time. 

18. nartUuuTs“ Li tjend of Ptrscus.” 

In my last year’s address I referred to the second volume of 
“ The Legend of Perseus ” as written liy one who, though not 
a Fellow of the Institute, was a zealous worker in its field. 
In drawing your attention to the cumpletion of the trilogy bv 
the publication of a third volume, I am now happy to say that 
its author is one of our body, my friend IMr. Hartland having 
responded to the appeal I addressed to anthropologists in the 



430 J'i\xuhiifs AihJress. 

Xoveinlier part uf uur Jnurnal 1>y asking me to prop(ise him for 
membership. I congratulate the Institute on his election, for 
I hope it gives promi.se of many valuable coummnieatious to us 
ill future. The work in i|uestion foiuids upon the Legend of 
Perseus a complete study of Tradition in Story, Custom, and 
Belief, and shows how certain puimitive ideas are the common 
possession of man in all piarts of the world and all degrees of 
civilisation. In the first volume this doctrine was applied to 
the Supernatural r>irth ; in the second to the Life Token ; in 
the third to the Eeseue of the Maiden and the Medusa Ayitch. 

I have the strongest possilde conviction that the light thrown 
by such researches as those of IMr. Hartland will spread, and 
that in it we shall pierceive more and more clea'rly as time goes 
on what are the laws which govern the development of tradi- 
tional ideas. The originality and courage of Mr. Hiirtland’s 
views are tempered in this last volume by a large infusion of 
scientific candour, reticence and modesty. 

19. The ProUon of Transiaissiun. 

In association with this subject, so well handled by Mr. 
Hartland, I will ask leave also to draw your attention to a 
valuable memoir recently published in the “ Internationales 
Archiv fiir Ethnographic,” by one of the most distinguished 
and honoured of my predecessors in office, Professor Tylor, 
From the new evidence afforded, on the one hand, by the 
publication of Duran’s “ History of the Indies,” as to the 
game of patolli among the ilexican.s, and on the other by a 
photograph of two players engaged at the game of pachisi 
in India, Professor Tylor adds to the force of the comparison 
between the two games which he drew in our Journal eighteen 
years ago. In measuring the evidential value of the strong 
similarity between these two games, as joroof of Asiatic inter- 
course with America before the time of Columbus, he raises the 
problem, as yet only imperfectly solved, but which he of all 
men is the best cpualified to guide us in attempting to solve : 
"What kind and amount of similarity in the arts or customs or 



PivsiJc Ilf’s A.rJO ress. 


431 


opinion? of different districts may justify us in denying, or 
perhaps I should say require us to deny, the possihUity of 
their independent development and to claim them as results 
of transmissiitn ^ I think that upon the right solution of this 
problem the future of anthropology very largely depends. So 
far as I feel myself qualitied to observe the processes going on 
in the minds of anthropologists occupied in the various branches 
of our science, it has appeared to me that there is a growing 
tendency to discountenance inquiries into transmission, and to 
consider phenomena as related to a particular stage in civilisa- 
tion arrived at by the operation of general laws, rather than as 
arising from communication between the peoples. An inter- 
esting illustration of this occurs to me in connection with some 
remarkable coincidences which were brought before the notice 
of the Eoyal Society of Literature by Professor Max Muller, 
who rai.sed this ? er}' problem. He showed that some Buddhist 
rituals and modes of thought resembling those of certain 
sections of Clnistiaiiity could be traced back to a date anterior 
to the Christian era. Some of his hearers, among them I 
1 lelieve the noble President of the Society, viewed with jealous 
indignation wbat appeared to be an attack on the originality 
of Chri.stianity, and was indeed put liy the right honourable 
author as an evidence of intercommunication. If such a matter 
had been discussed before this Institute, instead of before the 
Society of Literature, I am much inclined to think we should 
liave busied ourselves rather with the investigation of the 
adaptation of the peculiarities in question to the forms of 
thought, which had been gradually developed among the 
respective peoples, than to any speculation as to the place 
where such forms of thought arose or the maimer in which 
they had l>een transmitted. I look upon this tendency as 
entirely healthy ; I associate it with the tendency, which I 
also think to be a growing one, of seeking the simplest and 
most obvioii.s explanation for phenomena; and I Ijelieve that 
both together are full of promise for the future of anthro- 
pology. 



432 


lic^wrt of Scrutineers. 


It was moved by Sir H. Low, seconded by Mr. (tOMVIe, and 
unanimously resolved : — 

“ That the thanks of the Meeting be given to the President 
for his address, and that it be printed in the JmrrnnJ 
of the In.stitute.” 

The Scrutineers gave in their Report, and the following 
gentlemen were declared to be duly elected to serve as Officer-^ 
and Council for the year 1897. 

President . — E. W. Brabrook, Esq., F.S.A. 

Vicf-Pir.'.idents.. — H. Balfour, Esq., M.A. ; John Beddoe, Esq.. 
M.D., E.E.S. ; Sir John Evans, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S. ; Sir W. 
H. Flower, K.C.B., LL.D., F.R.S. ; Francis Clalton, Esq., D.C.L., 
F.R.S. : Sir Hugh Low, G.C.M.G., F.G.S. ; Rt. Hon. Sir John 
Lubbock, Bart., F.R.S. ; Prof. A. Macalister, M.D., F.R.S. ; 
■Cuthbert Peek, Esq., M. A., F.S.A. ; Lieut. -General Pitt Rivers, 

D. C.L., F.R.S. ; Prof. Edward B. Tylor, D.C.L, F.Pi.S. 

Hon. Seeretarij. — 0. il. Dalton, E.sq, B.A. 

Ron. Treasurer. — A. L. Lewis, Esq., F.C.A. 

Council. — G. M. Atkinson, Esq.; W. M. Beaufort, Esq. ; J. 
F. Collingwood, Esq., F.G-.S. ; J. G. Crarson, Esq,, M.D. ; G. L. 
Goniine, E.sq, ; '\Y. Gowland, Esq., F.S.A. ; Prof. A. C. Haddoii, 
M.A., D.Sc. ; T. V. Holmes, Esq., F.G.S. ; R. P>. H(dt, Esq. ; Sir 
H. H. Howorth, il.P. ; R. Biddulph Martin, Esq., M.P. ; A. P. 
Maudslay, Esq. : J. L. Myres, Esq., iM A. ; F. G. H. Price, Esq.. 
F.S.A. ; R. H. Pye, E.sq. ; C. H. Read, Esq.. F.S.A. ; F. Mb Rudler, 
Esq., F.G.S. ; i’lof. Arthur Thuni.soii, M.A. ; Coutts Trotter. 

E. sq., F.G.S. ; M. J. MAlhouse, Esq. 

Amstont Secretary . — J. Apliii "Webster, Esip 

ilr. Gonmie e.xpressed regret that there was no Bureau of 
Ethnography in this country, and suggested th.at this year, 
the 60th of our (Rieen’s reign, would lie a favourable time for 
this and other Societies to impress on the Government tlie 
necessity of assisting in the foundation of such a Bureau. It 
wa.s unanimously resolved that the Council take steps during 
the present 3'ear to find the best nieairs of forming such a 
Bureau, and obtaining for it the supjport of Government. 

A vote of thanks to the retiring Vice- President, the retiring 
Councillors, the Secretary, the Treasurer, the Auditors and tlm 
Scrutineers, was moved, .seconded, and carried by acclamation. 



ANTHROPOLOGICAL MISCELLANEA AND NEW BOOKS. 


Readers of the Journal are invited to communicate any ne^v facts of 
especial interest which come under their notice. Short abstracts of, or 
extracts from letters, icill be published at the discretion of the ^Editor. 
Letters should be marked ^'Miscellanea” and addressed to The 
Secretary, 3, Hanover Square, W. 


We are indebted to Mr. J. J. Atkinson for the following^ 
interesting communication accompanied by the sketch which is 
here reproduced. This method of drilling is unusual, the employ- 
ment of a weighted bag apparently not being known elsewhere. 

The Editor of the Anthuopolooical Journal. 

Dear Sir, 

I send you a drawing of the drill used in former times by the 
natives of New Caledonia to pierce their stone axes — although the 
pump drill was also known to them. It is quite new to me, nor 
do I see any mention of it in any of my books — although perhaps 
within the knowledge of wider students of Anthropology. It 




434 


A.jifJii'opohijiciil ^Ii!iCiUo.iu:ci uiv.l ^nc 


seems a remarkable instrument to have been evolved by so com- 
paratively low a race in its utilization of centrifng-al foi-ce for the 
economy of labour. Its peculiar action in use would seem to 
explain the fact of the abnormally larare external diameter of the 
holes found in such axes, and which it was ditfiealt to explain even 
on the improbable assumption that an unnecessarily large borer 
was used. 

The hard flint -like stone used as borer was lashed to the end 
of a stick about 2 feet long. The other extremity ended in a 
blunt rounded point. About 8 inches from this and within a 
groove carved in the wood was fixed a bit of string, some 7 inches 
long, to the other end of which was fastened a bag containing a 
stone j of a pound in weight. The worker took in his right hand 
the half of an empty cocoanut shell, this he placed on the upper 
blunted end of the stick, thus forming a loose ball and socket joint. 
Pressing lightly he began by giving it a gentle circular motion 
which rapidly increased in speed ; the weighted ba" at once flew 
out, and thus with very little physical exertion the process of 
piercing is continued ; the left hand holds to the around the axe 
which is to be bored. This instrument is now so little known 
that the Curator of the Xoumea ilnseum, M. Bernier, had much 
trouble in getting a model made by some old native.s. 

Tours truly, 

Thio, Xet.:- Caledonia, J. J. AtkixsOX. 

Januurtj 28, 1897. 


Thi^ Peruvian vase, recently acquired by ilr. Read for the 
British Museum, i.s of exceptional interest on account of the figures 
represented iu relief on its sides. It will be seen that the warrior 
who is being carried ofl^ by the lower figure has two spears in hi.= 
left hand, and what appears almost certainly to be a throwing- 
stick in his right. Hitherto the examples of throwing-sticks 
known to belong to the Peruvian area have been veiy rare. One 
from Riobatnba, Ecuador, will be found figured by Dr. ilax Hhle 
(“ Wurfholzer der Indianer Amerika’s.” Mittheil ungen der Antin', 
ge.sellschaft in Wien, vol. xvii, 1887, Plate IV, Fig. 2, where it i.s 
seen upside down) ; the other, from Quito, by Dr. .Stoljje (‘‘TJeber 
altmexikanische und Siidamerikanische Wnrfbretter. ’ Internat. 
Archiv fiir Ethnographie, vol. iii, 1890, Fig. 6), Both thus belong 
to the inland country ivhere pottery of the tvpe represented in our 
illustration was pi-obably not made. Dr. Ulile is of opinion that 
the throwing-stick was not in general use in tinr-ient Peru ; but 
the design upon this va.se suggests that it was at any rate known in 
the lower country nearer the coast, though whether it -ivas regularly 
used in warfare or not is still uncertain. Any discovery tending 
to increase our knowledge of the area over -uhicli throwini;- 
stick.s were used in South America is always worth recordino-, and 
it is to be hoped that further examples either of the weapon itself 
or of representations of it may be found from the same locality. 



435 


Aiithropolofjical Miscellanea and A^eic Bools. 

The throwing-stick on the present vase seems to belong to the 
same general type as the Quito and Riohamba specimens, the large 
hook near the butt being meant for the first finger, thus taking 
the place of the pegs or holes familiar in other types. This hook, 
which appears to be of exaggerated size, would in the actual object 
be at right angles to the small peg at the opposite end against 
which the butt of the javelin would rest at the moment of throwing. 
That it is here represented as in the same plane is probably due 
to artistic necessity, for unless seen in profile, neither peg nor 



hook would bo as conspicuous as their impoi'tance required. In 
the weapons from Quito and Riohamba the finger-hooks are com- 
paratively small ; in that from the former place the hook is made 
of a spur of a bone tightly lashed with cord. 


4o6 Anthropological Miscdlanca and tN’ew Books. 

Mr. jAiiE> EDOR-P.'LRTixtjTOS sends the following corroboree 
music from the Burnett River, Queensland, forwarded to him by 
Mr. Charles Handley ; — 

Burnett River Corroboree, 


C-AU.. 



* Signifies the beat ot boomerangs, nuEah nullalis, etc., wliEe the gins pad the 
opossiuu skina. 


Songs and Specimens of the Language of New Georgia, 
Solomon Islands. Collected by Lieutenant B. T. So.'ier- 
VILLE, R.N. ; %cith an Introdtictorg Notice of Melanesian anil 
New Guinea Songs, by Sidsey H. R.\y. 

Part I. Iatrooucioky, by Sidney H. Ray. 

It is a remarkable characteristic of the Song-Literature of 
Melanesia and New Guinea, that only in a vei-y few examples bas 
it been possible to give a translation of the words used, which 
w ill convey sense. Wherever songs Lave been collected, whether 
in Piji, in Banks’ Islands, New' Hebrides, Solomon Islands or New 
Guinea, they are only partially intelligible. They are so, even 
to the natives themselves who sing them, and all the efforts of 
missionaries and others acquainted with the languages often fail 
to remove the obscurity. When, however, the songs are of some 
length and become narrative or historical poems they are much 
more intelligible, although containing still many obscure passages. 
Lieutenant Somerville, daring his recent ethnological inquiries in 



437 


AiithropoJofjieal Miscelluiiea add TVei'/ Bools. 

Xew Georgia,' collected and sent to me several specimens 
of native songs, and these have suggested the collection and 
illustration of specimens from other parts of Melanesia and Xew 
Guinea, with references to the published literature on the subject. 

1. Fiji Songi. 

An account of Fijian versification with specimens was given by 
Hale in the Philology of United States Exploring Expedition,' 
and some further specimens have been given bj" Waterhouse in 
The King and People of Fiji,"' and by A. S. Gatschet.* The 
latter are mostly derived from the collection of Eev. Lorimer 
Fi.son. But by far the most important notice of Fijian literature 
of this kind is a paper read at the Ninth Congress of Orientalists 
by Sir Arthur Gordon (now Lord Stanmore;, on Fijian Poetry.^ in 
which is given various translated portions of songs. 

In Fiji songs are of two kinds. The sere, sung or chanted 
sitting, and the meke, sung to accompany dances, or during the 
preparation of kava (ggagonaj. It is noted that the latter especi- 
ally are very ancient and very unintelligible,” that the songs 
are still an essential part of the lives of the people and are com- 
posed as occasion offers. Concerning sacred songs. Sir Arthur 
Gordon remarks as follows : The sacred songs are exceedingly 
difficult to translate. This difficulty is due to several causes. One 
is that the language in which they are written differs from that 
in everyday use, whether only in being older, or as being pur- 
posely couched in different terms, I do not venture to pronounce 
positively, though my opinion inclines strongly in the latter 
direction. Another is to be found in the extremely elliptical and 
allusive nature of the phrases used A third and one often not 
sufficiently thought of, is that most of them were intended to be 
acted, each singet* or band of singers having a distinctly assigned 
part. To read one of them straight through is like reading a 
scene in a play in which there is a good deal of animated conver- 
sation and action, as if it rvere printed without any punctuation, 
without any hint that there is more than one speaker and without 
stage directions or changes of scene.” 

As specimens of Fijian songs in the native language I extract the 
following from Waterhouse.'' No tran.slation was given by the 
collector. 

‘ See page 357. 

' United States Exploring Expedition, commanded by Charles Wilkes, U.S.If.. 
during 1838-42. vol. vi, “ Ethnography and Philology," by Horatio Hale. Phila- 
dfdphia, 184G. 4to. 

^ '“The King and People of Fiji,” by Joseph Waterhouse. London, 1860. 
8to. 

“ Specimens of Fiji Dialects,” edited from manuscripts of Rev. Lorimer 
Fison, by A. S. Gatscliet, in ‘‘Internat. Zeitsclirift fur Allgemeine Spraehwis- 
seuschaft,” II Rand. Leipzig. 1885, pp. 193—208. 

^ “ On Fijian Poetry,” by Sir Arthur Gordon, in “ Transactions of the Ninth 
Internat. Congress of Orientalists,” vol. ii. London, 1893, pp. 731-753, 

" ” King and People of Fiji,” p. 425. 

VOL. XXVI. 2 G 



438 


Anth:'i‘ 2 >o/ii[/ii'"l MisccVinicn oivl Kev Boiiks. 

Song of the Tolpacco. (T'a;i>'a Lrivn.) It may be provincialisec!. 

Dru taki waitui. dia tale ; 

Cici muri ko Lewatagane ; 

Sa maqa na tavoko e iia masi ? 

A tavako li ka koto roai vale. 

Qai la’ki soli kei na yakavi. 

Solia vakacava cavii-aki r 
Qisomakina ki na tulu ni vale. 

IJalili mat e dua na tobe, 

Ualili mai yasa mai cake. 

Au cata na vakawati ni ([ase, 

E dua vei an na gone 
ISIei vivivi ni tavakoe. 

War .Song. {Ml'an).' 

Ai tei vovo. tei vovo, 

E ya, e ya. e ya. e ya : 

Tei vovo. tei vovo 
E ya, e ya, e ya, e ya. 

Rai tn mai : rai ta mai : 

Oi au a viriviri keniu bai. 

Rai tu mai ; rai tu mai ; 

Oi an a viriviri kemu bai. 

Toa alewa tagane 
Veico, veico. veico. 

An tabn moce koi an 
Au moce ga ki donio ni bian. 

E Invit koto ki ra nomu vraga, 

E kaya beka an sa Invn sara. 

Ji’oniu bai e wana mere 
An a tokia ka tasere. 

2. Ranks' Islinuh Smiijs. 

An account of the song dialects of the Banks’ Islands is given 
ijy Rev. Dr. Codrington in his work on the Melanesian Lan- 
guages. Speaking ot the Songs of ilota he points out ; 

1. That the songs are never made in the common language, 

nor is their language that of any neighbouring place. 

2. Each island has its onn song dialect. 

3. There i.s nothing to prove that the song dialect is an 

archaic form of the common language. 

It is also shown that the difftrences from the common language 
” consist (1) in the casting out of vowels and consequent contraction 
of the words; (2) in the occasional addition of a final vowel; (3) in 
tue use of words not used at all or used differently in the common 
language; (4) in the imitation of foreign forms. 

In Mota the person eornposintr a song i.s called a foictnwoas, one 
nho measures, tou-o, a song as. The song is called after the person 
^ “ King and People oB Fiji,” p. 3;ii ). 



A'lithrojyjloyical Misi:ellami:< and JS’eiv Books. 439 

who is the subject of it, and is na nsiiui, his song, it is na fowona, 
his measure, of the poet, who is said to taiu the subject of the 
song. To chant the song is ice site o as, to draw out the song. 

I quote from Dr. Codrington' a part of a song about Bishop 
Selwyn, in the song dialect of Mota, Sugarloaf Island, and also a 
part of the same song in the ilotlav. Saddle Island Dialect. 

Mota. 

Oeoewa wu roro sa ? narorou i Besope ni gaiii tal na Vano 
lave; nabtik na lare lave, nasrik na ar J/erlav, ni se tnrtur ale 
lame ; gis nok melov ok ; melov rer me rere levran Rohenqo/i, nam 
loslos wore sur na te niul Ulsilane, ro Tingormew se tur gor norne. 

Motlac. 

Aeoewae I wo reronse ? wo reron e Besove ni ga??ztel weveno 
mee, nalni nelerelav, e nasri neer ilerlav ni se turture le lame ; gis 
wo meloTok: raelovrer emrer letu-ane Rehirqozz, nam loslos wor 
enaen te mul Olsilade, Reti/zgormew se tur gor doro. 

Mota Prose Yersion. 

Oeoewa ! o roro sa r na roron Bishop, we gazno tale o Vanua 
Lava ; nalatdk o lau lava, nasuriik o aru ta Meralava, ni we tnrtur 
alo lama : gis 1 nok molov aka, o molov rere me rere lo varan 
Rohonqozj, na me loslos worn, ape na te mule Ulsilane, ro 
Tiugormew we tur goro narua. 

English. 

Oeoewa I Xews of whatt News of the Bishop, he sails round 
Vanua Lava. ily wind is a great wind, my bones are the 
Casuarina tree of Merlav ; he .stands in the sea. Oh I my sailing 
of the ship ; the sailing on the flow of the sea has flowed into the 
bosom of Rohenqozz ; I am nothing but rejoiced because I shall go 
to New Zealand; Ro Tingormew withstands us two. 

3. Tanna Song, Meic Hebrides, 

The only specimen of Song literature which I have from 
Southern Melanesia is the following from the island of Tanna. It 
presents many of the features of the Fiji and Banks’ Island songs, 
and though mainly in the Kwamera dialect, contains several 
'■Teasisi words, obscure phrases, and even borrowed and modified 
English words. The subject is the shooting of a IVeasisi man 
named Yehlu (called Yeru in the -song) by Piisi. The Rev. W. 
Gray give.s the song and notes as follows : — 

Ua ren ren rao 
Ua reu ren rad 

L"a ren ren rad These words have no meaning 

Ua ren rad ‘’f* we know. 

Ren ren rinrad. 

* Codrington, Her. R. H., '■ XUe Melanesian Languages, ’’ Oxford, 1885 p'> 
309 and 321. ’ 


2 G 2 



440 


Aiitlii'O'polo^ii'ul Mt-icelhi lift/ ontl 2\i:ir Boo]l's. 


2 . 

Awe ! Xiiit keikei 1 

Awe 1 Aiiit keikei ! 

Awe ! NiCit keikei I 

Iripen iau 

Yakatereng paisoii.’ 

• ) 

O. 

In kiiri rineivi 
In kiiri rmeivi 
111 kuri rineivi 
Ravahi meven 
Rumalia ravalioraka. 

4. 

Pupum ti-ratiiita 
Piipum ti-ratiura 
PupuTO ti-ratiiita 
RmalitP YerCi 
Mahti nuprei nirCis. 

5. 

Awe I kaha Pusi — (3 times.) 
Rinarnki Yerii. 
ilurani neii'iis.” 

6 . 

Awe nima imak ! (3 times.) 
Yima afwe Pusi 
Rai’iiki iati. 

7. 

Yerii ramasuk — (3 time.s.) 
Makwein abomos. 

Awe, nuriik iXupau. 

8 . 

Awe, nuruk iftipau ! (3 times.) 
Nuriik Xupan ' 

Awe, Tata Yeru I 

9. 

Kahu ramasuk. (3 times ) 
Makwein abomos : — 

Aive mirak Yem ! 

10 . 

Awe, nima imak 
Ti-arier 

Mata nokweikwei. 


O beloved Yiiit.’ 


Lead me there. 

That I may feel the poison. 

3, 

The evil .spirit prompted. 

He takes (it) and goes, 
Rumaha takes (it) away. 

4. 

By and by he will ascend.^ 


He has shot at Yerii. 

And shot the trunk of a niru.s. ' 

b. 

Aha ! my gi-andfather Pusi ; 

He has shot Yern, 

And shoulders his snider. 

6 . 

Oh. my kindred ! 

That fellow Pusi 
Has shot me. 

7. 

Yeru keeps crying: — 

And calls long : — 

Oh, my child Nupaii. 

8 . 

Oh. my child l^npau 
My child Xupau ! 

Oh, my father Yeru. 

9. 

Kahu keeps crying. 

And calls long. 

Oh. my father-in-law Yeru ! 

10 . 

Oh, my kindred 
Stand you three there. 

And look at the raw flesh of 
the wound). 



441 


AntJiropohfiiccil MUrOlanca cou^ Xck BooL-t. 

11 . 11 . 

Awe, yakinamapau ! Alas ! I have become weak. 

Nima imak ti-o My kindred do ye ^something), 

Miivihi iau. And take me. 

Notes . — ' liiut is probably the spirit of a dead person who is supposed to give 
help to his descendants when they set out a bowl of kava for him to drink. 
- Paison is the English word poison. ^ Rinahti is partly Weasisi and partly 
Kwamera dialect. ^ Yeru was shot on rising ground. ’ Xirus is a tree with 
poisonous bark. A corruption of the English word snider. ® Teru’s son with 
his wife Kaliu arrive. 


4. Xeiv Guinea Songs. 

The few specimens of Xew Guinea songs known differ very little 
in general character from those of other parts. Macgillivray so 
long ago as 1852' gave an untranslated song in the Tassai (Brumer 
Island dialect). The following are given by the Rev. James 
Chalmers.- 


1. A Motu song sung on lakatoi. taught to Edae’ by the Spirit. 

Bokibada oviria nanai. Ela lao nauaore diaia ; 

Ario viriu ua bo veriauko ; Pinuopa diaia uruero nairuovo. 

Bokibada eraroi nanai, Ela lao melarava memeru. 

Irope umanai ela Danko. 

2. Another of the same character. 


Edae Siabo hidia daqai 
Ba negea dobi, 

Edae Siabo. Edae a Siabo. 
Edae tn mai. 


Bava hadaqai balaru dobi, 
Edae Siabo, Edae a Siabo, 
Edae a Siabo, Edae Siabo 
Hidia hadaqai. 


3. Kabadi songs used when gardening. 

‘‘ All the young bananas are placed round the plantation readv 
for planting, the planter takes one of the best, stands in the centre 
and looks inland : holding in his hand the banana, he says : — 


Lariba dnbaduba o. 
Jaribari dubadnba o. 
Jaribakeri dubadnba o. 
Egu dni dnbaduba o. 

O egu oroua dnbaduba o. 


Lifts it np and looks at it ; addressing it he .says : — 
O natnguo dobi haragaharaga. hean haragaharaga : 


' ilacgillivray, J., " Xan-ative of the Voyage of H.M.y. ’ Rattlesnake,’ ” 
London, 1852, p. 274. 

- Chalmers, Key. L, ’“Pioneering in New Guinea.’* London, 1887, pp. 117 
118. 

^ Edae was the legendary introducer of sago from the we^t to the Nlotii and 
tribes on the eastern shores of the Papuan Gulf. 



442 


A'lith /‘uj)oIoi/iad },Iis<;elhi Ill'll (hid Xcif liooLs. 

When the bananas are bearinof, and the time has come to cover 
them, he stands in the plantation and chants ; — 

Egnmignmi mo e 
Bamo be guniignmi e 
Oi anbeghasi a gumigumi e 
O bamo be aroberobe me anbeghasi 
Anbeghasi aroberobe moe e-e-e-e. 

When tinished tying, he stands and tnrns towards them all and 
chants : — 

E an mia e 
Sinahn lau mia e 
Daha rasenai e 
Sinahn lau mia e-e-e-e. 

Used when planting yams : — 

Asinavari daudan (fonr times). 

Huevara daudan „ 

Bedovari daudan 
Naevari daudan 
Eogovari daudan 

When the yams are just appearing above ground : — 

Sinari kenikeni (twice). 

Hneri kenikeni 
Ruela kenikeni 
Xaera kenikeni ,, 

Concerning these songs Wr. Chalmers’ says ‘‘I made many efiorts 
to discover the meaning of these songs, but the natives themselves 
have no knowledge whatever of their purport.” 

In the ’‘Annual Report on British New Guinea ” for 1890-91. 
Mr. R. Guise gives some specimens of Ballads and Songs in the 
dialects of tribes in the Central districts of New Guinea. I tran- 
scribe these in full.* 


Leku-Lekc. 

(Ballad recording noteworthy events in the history of a tribe.) 

These particular portions arc in a language which is not spoken 
in this neighbourhood and are the oldest verses of the song known. 
It resembles the language spoken by the tribes inhabiting the south 
end of the Macgillivray Range. 

I. 

Kita vetali vetalimina Wapuli Wapuli Roga is talking of 
Roga klla vetali vetalimina. fighting, is talking of fight- 

ing. 

* 1892, Queensland, “Annual Report on British New Guinea from Ist July, 
1890, to 30th June, 1891.” Appendix GG, “ Native dialects,” p. 108, “ Vocabu- 
lary of Bula’a dialect.” Preface by B. Guise, Esq. 



jiilthi'opoloffual MisicUuiica umI 2i'i-v: Sook-i. 


443 


II. 

Alepa melo gemi melina bua The A.epa men were coming 
rigona pakini roli pitagoana. armed. "We drove them 

away. 

III. 

Kara gota revaluai leva tu- Should we throw a spear, a 
puna. man is hit. 

Leku-lekc, from Kwaipo, in the Maogillivray Range. 

Oi bahine aririgo taona tena O you woman, softly walking, 
oaririgo aririgona. Leku softly creeping, 

leku, &c. 

Varaina gela malaga varaina O you man, you come from 
variana roka keto vegata. afar, and fall on the path. 

Leku, &c. 

Oi babine tipi ono koro maina. O you woman, catch a quail 
Leku, &c. with a hand net. 

iXege pune maoma kora vera- O you girls, who is strong to 

riana. Leku. &c. catch a pigeon, 

iXega vanuga nuganaiia origo Inside the village, let us march 
anna rage anna. Leku, &c. up, let us march down. 

LtKL'-J.EKf, a later composition, written in the tongue used in 

Kamali. 

Olulaga oi buikima maniga O, Olulaga. j'our hair is thick 
pala popolona epuru wai and long as the leaves of a 

puru voina leku - leku ve ‘‘ popolo.” 

leku. 

Olulaga oi gimamu kora lege- O, Olulaga, when you shake 
naanegi manega amo nana your kora (man-catcher) a 
namo amo taliana. heavy dew falls. 

Olulaga irunaga dubu vili wai O, Olulaga, with the handsome 
poraage. face, you hanged the head on 

the dubu (sacrificial stage). 

Oi tanna kone melo gili wana Come, look at the boy from the 
mo gitana. bush, playing on the shore 

with a white crane. 

Oru manu uaro gege lagi I am like a red parrot, I fly 
nama. away and return. 

Vanuganani gera olo vanuganai There is a village on the 
ora gena gipa manu noveni summit of a hill where men 
varaa varaana. are taught wisdom by an 

eagle hawk. 

Gilalaka lamolaka kila veagi Gilalaka and laomolaka, boast- 
veagimu ma Molegolo ropina ing who of us is strong enough 
pana kepoleana. to overturn the platform on 

Molegolo. 



J44 


xidth Hk it> '< 'htj ^iif Bnitls, 


Molegolo avalana lau minana 
minana poro kulou melan 
min 11 vagi ana. 

Polo knlo kilamu lai nevaina 
orn auekn noi iiepinn pinu- 
ana, 

Tinara ularana gena genio 
kakona pe gaii rigo waarira 
Kalo vannganai pelewa kamn 
lavilavina. 

Melo tarikii mo rakaauta mo 
gnrana mo rakaauta nlanana 
mole konena mo tnlu tepa- 
tepa na. 


When the nortli - west wind 
blows lightly on Molegolo, 
your head-dre.ss of feather.s 
will be displaced. 

I do not want a head-di-ess, 1 
will bind twine around my 
ankles. 

Oiii' mothei' is at Kalo, where 
tile sun sets, let ns be like 
the gemo (a tish) and seek 
her out 

My bi-other. what are you carry- 
ing ; and what are you doing 
in the water, splashing it 
about with your feet. 


from the Papuan, as distinguished from the Melanesian 
district.s of Kew Guinea we have few specimens. The Eev. 
J. Chalmers gives the following “ Song before smoking ” from 
Yaimuru, in the neighbourhood of Bald Head. It is said to 
have no meaning.' 


Arau mai e ! 
lo mari e 1 
Erere mai e ! 
Aueva e ! 
lo mari e e ! 


Api ame ! 

Ian e! 

Aaitmako e ' 
lau e 1 

Kuku ! Ueako 1 


The words and tune of a .song from Miiralug or Prince of 
Wales’ Island in Torres Straits have been given by Professor 
Haddon in his account of the Ethnography of the Western tribe, - 
and also in his desciiption of the dance.s of Torres Straits. “ The 
words of this differ a good deal from the common speech, and 
are difficult to translate. 


5. Sutigg ft oin the Solemon Islands. 

With the exception of the songs collected by Lieut. Somerville, 
which follow in the second part of this notice, I only know of the 
following song given by Mr. C. M. Woodford in the language of 
Aola. on the north-east coast of Gnadalcanar Island.* No trans- 
lation is given. 

Te mani. to mani. Loko petepete mi. 

To kai sambelagi mi, Petepete uli mi, 

Sambelagi tete mi, Uli mani kande mi, 

Tete mbili-mbili loko mi. Kande ma kondo mi. 


* Cbaliuers, Kev. J,, '■ Pioneering in iSew Guinea. ’ London, 188“, p. 68, 
Haddon, A. C., “ The Ethnography of the Western Tribe of Torres Straits,” 
m “ Joum. Anthrop. Inst.,” six, 1890,'pp. 378. 380. 

Haddon, A. C., ” The Secular and Ceremonial Dances iu Torres Straits.” ui 
” Intemat. Archiv fiir Ethnographic,” Bd. vi, 1893, p. 148. 
p - ^ Naturalist among the Head Hunters,” London, 1890, 



445 


A.iithropoloijicoJ MiSicUii nep omJ I]ool-<. 


Saria bombotoni mi, Ki kiki roni^o mi. 

Eo mai-n-ai mi, Ro rongo kindia mi. 

Eo eo kiki mi, Tindisotio. 

The language is practically that of the island of Florida, and 
some of the words are intelligible, but I cannot make coherent 
sense of the entire song. 

In the following portions of this paper are given some songs 
collected by Lieut. Boyle T. Somerville, R.R., dtu’ing a surveying 
voyage of H.M.S. “ Penguin ’’ on the coast of Xew Get>rgia. The 
language of this island is best known by the vocabulary (in four 
dialects) by Lieut. Somerville, which Las been printed for the 
Hydrographical Department of the Admiralty.* An account of 
this publication appeared in the Journal of the Anthi-opological 
Institute for November, 1896. ’ 

The dialects of the songs and of the story which follows them 
are those of Rubiana in the south-west lagoon and of Marovo, the 
general dialect of the coast natives. The language present.-, 
many divergences from the usual type of Solomon Island tongue.--. 

In what follows the songs and story are given as Lieut. Somer- 
ville wrote them and with his own notes and translations. 


Part II. — Sox'-> trom Xi.w Gkoiioia. I!v Lir.vr. B. T. 

So.MKEvii,i.t:, R.N. 

1. " Sithna Belapura.’’ Sfeinner : i.e.^ H.M.S. 

Pen'jnii/.'’) 

Marovo or Eastern Dialect. 

The song apparently describes the arrival of H.M.S. Peuguin ” 
in the Marovo district of New Georgia. The part concerning Kellv 
and Griffith (the former a trader of Rubiana, the latter of Xgarasi. 
on the Northern Coast) is obscure. The two boys w-ho gave me 
the words, made signs that it referred to the (apparently) hand- 
cuffing of some one. I could connect it with no incident that came 
to oui- knowledge either on board the '■ Penguin ’’ or iu camp. 

The last fives lines seem separate, and went to a different chant 
to the remainder. 

Names in italics are those of places in the locality known to us 
Englandi Americana serosere Mbuka Nuki kiona pa India, pa 

ton 

Nunggini. 

Xeiv Guinea. 

Pa tu Laiti. pa tu ilata, pa tu Lila, pa tu Ktvu, pa tu Mata- 
Past (-0 


* " A Vocabulary of Various Dialects used in Vew 6eori»ia.” compiled 
Lieutenants B. T. Somerville and S. C. W'eigall. E.Ts ., H.5I.S. “ Penguin. ’ 1S93- 
4-5. Hvdrcgrapliic Department, Admiralty, 1S90 



Anthrojiolo;/ic((} MiscMcnua and Xcw Books. 


4-iC 

Hore pa sera Jlaroco, boro Chiri, boro Kara, boro Tolu, born Mane. 

huic/i h>j coast 

boro Chiri. boro Toa, boi-o Kira. 

Hore mai pa kolo Cliecheu, pia kolo Xele, pa kolo Cbalu, pa kolo 
L)ov:u go hy open sea 

Uoluiigafu, kolo Oimku. 

Hore mai pa boro Kua, hono hore mai pa kolo Kicha, pa 
T)okh go by Joun come by open sea (two ojt- 

2fbolo ; 
lying islands). 

Hore mai pa Chipnra, pa Enekonggn, hore mai pa 2Iv njiana, pa 
JJoxcn go hy down go 

ilinjalai. 

Katekatini pa Orooroki, ilbote, pa Bili Sangora, Bili Tolelo, Bill 

(Bill entrance to lagoon) 

hipa, Bili Konggu : 

Kare Chombuani, kare Cholani : pa Karu-njiu, pa Karu-njuke. 
Xot not (d/t island) 

Cbavicbaviaui ; 

Mai pa Chorliopo, pa Ngora-ngorunu mati. 

(a point) reef. 

Makasina hore la pa tiangara Lurnalike ; 

By and bye down goby Ithe Lumalike entrance) (facing Repi district), 

Mai pa mati Mhaku. mati Velii, mati Vio. mati Onasanga, mati 
Come by (a reef hi Lurnahki entrance) reef reef reet 

Xdola, mati Ringgo. 
reef. 

Hore mai pa VtuJia : bore mai Lumbe Chain, maniwa. 

Down come by man of war. 

Chake nia kwaka sitiina ta Kerijji, tiugonea atisegoro pa 
steam-boat tlrifith (a trader) 

Sydney konggu, pa Sydney Lupa, tonua kwina. 

ljueen. 

Kwini ndoku pa pepelete atu kwaka pa sitima nahinini, kwaka 
Queen sit boat steamer 

tenga Kiripi. 
tdrlfith. 

Hore mai kwaka sitima Somerville, mai pa sera Okocho urungia 
steam-boat 
Bera-bei’a. 

Malni ngulnln Kelli pia heiani “ Penguin,” ka pa pa 
Kelly (a trader) 

“ Penguin. ■’ 



Antkropologiml Miscellanea and Neia Books. 447 

Boro wa Kiripi tinoni limangn kaleli matauni ene ni lapa ni koka 
Grifi til 
pini. 

Talokete pia lierani ngu pa Kara Tengguna, omi pa Kara pa 
Afraid here carry I to see 

Kdovela. 

Pia herani ngu pa Kara Vindalu, pa Kara Xepiclii, pa Kara 
Sere carry I to (Many lagoon islets are considered double and 
Kaminde, pa Kara Cheruma, Kara Kachona. 
called Karu, two, in consequence) . 

Omi pa Kara Kamburu, Karn Kgengguln, ngn, talokete eraka. 

See I afraid I. 

Tapa meka wari wake kisa machu pa maniwa. 

One shark son man-of-war. 

Kongge noagge kale matonde. 

side making (i.e. right hand side). 

Panja pauja kale bendende. 

side left. 

Tapa meka wari ndumi pii-a be viri. 
one. 

Tapa meka wari wake tinoni pira. 

one man that. 

Kisa maebu maniwa. 

Shark son man-of icar. 

2. Kolomoru (The Xiglit Wind). 

Kolomoruna Kawo Konji 

Night wind the (name of a small stream at Sepi) 

Kawo Tsalu keli mai. 

(Another small stream) up come 
Kolomoruna longgi Chalu. 

Night wind (probably Tsalu again). 

Kawo pa Konji : temara pa Wamba 
Kawa pa Tsalu, m — m — m — . 

3. Tbe following song is sung to tbe same air : — 

Monjenangara mbolembolena 
Mbalimbolena telemba be la Kiripi. 

Gripith (a trader). 

Waka ta Repi, lulu pake masa. 

Ship of Repi 

Surangi Rakupisn, hero tsura pa kolo. 

(name of a man) open sea. 

Honabapa pa Tsokura, pa Koveli, pa Kbambu. 



448 


Aiitlii'iypo^uijicol Mi-viUaaen atv! JSfcv' Booh-i. 

4. Tlii' song- is also sung to the same air : — 

Tua longoa pa Patasiu 

Oma me ngoa pa Kara Maneki 
(iN(!//(e of an ishi/td) 

iMbemarono ra — m — m — m. 

Kiirukuru pa Xdakolai 
Pigeon 

Aii2'2'<i hangga pa Renvolo 

iMbemarono m — -m — m — m. 

Kurukuiu pa itbekala 
Pigt'Oii 

Ulo raiuaua, ulo tinana, iilo ndasine. 

Treep.'' Jiit- father. Keeps his niother, leeeps his brother. 

Chimbetusa ki narona ni — m — m. 

Tiiu vaie ngu karo kale 
Tendo rendove m — m — m — m. 

All these songs were given to me by one lad and they are sung 
to the same air. If the words fail before the end of the air is 
reached, the singer hums the remainder with closed lips. 

The last song may be partly in the Mbariki, “ bush dialect, 
though it was given to me by a " salt water ” lad. Mbemarono, 
in any case is ^Mbariki dialect for ‘•name or "your name.” 


5. Song uci-'jiiipuiigiug tear dance o> Oati'hti Xatire.s, 
Tnaleet.) 


Pekapeka turn 
Dance 


Pekapeka tiuu 
Dance 

Polotii uasana 

Egoria tsatsaveli 
head 

Turusangi. 


{E".st>.i 


b. The following was chanted by the Marovo district (also 
Mungeri) lads in derisive imitation of the mode of speech of the 
Gatukai men. 

Xdeki ndeki pa Chaino — o — o : 

Song-da nee of 

Lulu wa i ngua ngina lenggu hori ki,sa — a — a. 
v:ait (.^) I soon kill Indov shark. 



Aiitli I'cpuJorjicaf MisctUo.tiCfi onO. Sool:^. 


44'.t 


7. A Riibiana song given to me 
by a small boy from Xgarasi. 

Koliohai. 

Koko liao ti-o-ke 
Tani teko ti-o-ke 
Koko bao ti-o-ke 
Ngnla teko ti-o-ke 
Koko hao ti-o-ke 
Tuma teko ti-o-ke 
Piti koli ti-o-ke 
Pa sa Saikile ti-o-ke 
He Lilio ti-o-ke 
Sa Sambeti ti-o-ke 
Ata ugna ti-o-ke 
Va tn khose ti-o-ke 
Hnki -wose ti-o-ke 
Asa pnta ti-o-ke 
Sasa pnta ti-o-ke 
Sighi tio ti-o-ke 
Wuliwuli tio ti-o-ke 
Dingudingu leagu ti-o-ke 
Ngnmo pitu ti-o-ke 
Hele pitn ti-o-ke 
Ngasa pim ti-o-ke 
Embe pitn ti-o-ke. 


8. Song supposed to represent 
the sound of a Jew's harp. 
(Eastern dialect.) 

Koiorn. 

Koi-oro paipa, 
Koi-oro pepa. 

Koi-oro pipa, 

Koi-oro paipa. 

9. Xuroivai. 

Totoro tiowai 
Totoro towao 
Kiworo kiworo 
Kdrowai ndrowai. 

I was informed by the small 
boy -who gave it to me. that this 
wa.s a hope " or sacred song. 
I repeated it to one or two men, 
but they did not knotv or under- 
stand it. 


10. Two other songs given me by the same boy : (Probably 
Eastem dialect.) 


Toinhi 

Tembo tembolo 
Tombi tembolo 
Tamba tembo o 
Timba tembolo. 


I lias L 
Kesa ke.sa 
Kesa ruha 
Kesa savoro 
Oroketi 
Titula wawao 
Revosia 

Tiimaneki tumauesri. 


Pakt III. A Story in ihe Dialects of Xf.w Gloroia. 

A short story, not an original native one, but composed for the 
occasion. I iu English. II in Island-English. Ill in ilarovo. 
IV in Eubiana. 

The story was lirst done into Rubiana by a native understanding 
English fairly well, and afterwmrds from Rubiana into Marovo, by 
a native understanding both tongues, so that whatever mistakes 
are in the Rubiana. the same are in the Marovo as legards the 
original English. 



450 


Anthropological Miscellanea and New Bool’s. 


I . — English version. 

Once upon a time, a man called Tasa went out to the Tomba 
Islands (thebnrrier islands that surround the North Coasts of New 
treorgia) to spear tish. 

After a little while he caught a inakasi, and had just placed it 
in his canoe, when another makasi came, and putting his head out 
of the water thus addi’essed him : — ‘‘ W'hy have you killed my 
wife r By and bye my childreu will all die if they do not get their 
food from her.” 

Tasa replied, ” Tes, but don't you see that my children will 
die too if they do not get lish to eat.” The makasi returned, 
■'Veiy well then, I shall go and tell my friend the shark, and 
he will catch hold of you, and kill and eat you.” And he dis- 
appeared into the sea. “ 

However, Tasa went on spearing fish, and when evening came 
he hoisted his .sail to start back home to ilungeri. Hardly had he 
done so before a au’eat wind rose, with rain, thunder, and lightning. 
His canoe quickly capsized and was broken by the waves, and Tasa 
began to swim for liis life. However, the makasi had been as good 
as bis word, and he came, bringing with him a shark and a croco- 
dile. The shark seized Tasa by the head, the crocodile by the legs, 
and they tore him in two before hi.s screams could call the attention 
of his friends. 

Then the makasi laughed, and, going home, soon got another 
wife, who looked after the children so that none of them starved. 

II . — The same sfory in hland-English. 

Long time before, one fellow man, name belong him he Tasa, 
him he go along Tomba, along canoe catch him fish along spear. 
By and bye one fellow makasi he come, him he catch him, him he 
put him along canoe. Close up another fellow makasi he come, 
he put him head bcdong him out of salt-water, he sing out, ” What 
name you .shoot him woman-makasi belong me ? by and bye 
altogether pioaninny belong me he die suppose he no catch him 
kaikai belong him.” 

Tasa, him he talk, '* What name you talk him, suppose 
picaninny belong me he no kaikai makasi, he all o’same pica- 
ninny belong 3 'ou, altogether him finish, he die.” Han-makasi 
he .siiig out : ” .411 right, you look out, me go talk him shark, 
by and bye ho kaikai along vou.’’ Him he go away along salt- 
water. 

Ta.'a he go, he .shoot him plenty fish, sun he go down, he 
put him up sail, he go quick along llungei-i. Big fellow wind 
he come, rain he come, plenty thunder and lightniug he come, 
canoe he capi.size. canoe he broke, Tasa he swim, he swim along. 
Sliai-k he come, crocodile he come, ilan-makasi he come, shark he 
catch him Tasa along head, crocodile he take him along leg, he 
pull, he pall plentv hard. Tasa he sing out, no man he come, bv 
and bye he broke, he finish. 



Anthropological Miscellanea and New Books. 


431 


Makasi ke laugh : him he go place belong him, he catch him 
another fellow woman : picaninnj belong him he no die. 

III. — The story in Mdrovo or Eastern dialect. 

Mekarani lavata, meka kilana, meka tinoni Tasa la pa 
Before hig one name one man Tasa go to 

Tomba, bambao ighana. 

Tomba spearing fish. 

Pana ngina ighana makasi hern mai hinanibn, hinambu 
On the soon fish makasi carry come 

makasi ngina raihi. "Walnsa pa mola na makasi. Hern 
raakasi soon Placed (.'') in canoe the makasi Carry 

mai makasi panangina mekai’ani. Vnrama pa kolo makasi 
come makasi soon before from ocean makasi 

“ Hoi honama manemaueki tanguraka sa mbohoronia tamhoi ? 
Yon icoman mine why your 

leuggn mbeto komburn tanguraka, kani vai niningo lelenggu 
die altogether children inine not fish die 

komburn.” 
children. 

Ta.si seki tinana. “ Sa njiama ni haniu kani ngougo soku 
Tasi killed mother. Why talk it yo’i not it ent enough 

komburu tanguraka, kande ngougo kombtiru ndio la va.” 
children mine it i.s not to eat children. 

Njiama ne ta sa makasi. “ Omia chake nia makasi manda va lusa : 
Talk makasi Look I if makasi 

omia sa kiso moko ta usu ma nia ngn lenggungua.” 
look I shark of it come T die I.” 

Cliongga la pa inderi ia. 

Bice go in sea hint. 

Chokuna ighana va la i pa ngongo katiiigga. Njoro wo ini wa 
Many fish go it to eat .--omt. Set suii 

toia tepe, pule mai pa Mimgeri. Ngetena cherani 
lice it sail return come to Muugeri Big hun-irnnr (.'") 

are panagina ipn, na mnngata, ua rani, na paratat i, 
icind soon night the rain the day the thutuler 

umhata, na ragi, are. Ngina opo mola, opo taknri, 
surf the wave irind. Soon capsize {.') canoe broken 

opo pomi tinoni, kiso basioto, na vua, na makasi. 
man shark crocodile. 

Herua kiso chaveh hataomi tera, la hna usu kuri mahile ; la ia 
Took shark head leg go it 

wai lima mahile hata omi. Tasa knkeli, kukeli, kani 

fi.ee legs. Tasa. sung ou.t sung out not {they) 



452 


Anthropohyind Mi-scellanea and N'ew Booki. 


mai. Makasina taknri mbeto. 
co'iiii'. ton) jiiiish. 

< "aonm makasi la pa kolo, manda wa lusa tinoni. 

^laka.si I/O to ooian mail. 

l\[eka liokiti nianemaneki. kani lenggiia kombiiru tania. 

Oiifi huy wonuiii not die childrui his. 

Xoff . — There are several places where the English meaning has 
et'ideiitly not been apparent : and, indeed, the tvhole story seemed 
a stranse sequel of sentences to the interpreters without a familiar 
idea, or anything which made sense, while it was being translated 
bit by bit. Once or twice they appear to have translated the 
little bits of side explanation which were made to them, not as 
part of the story but to elucidate the meaning of some particulai 
clause. 

IV. — The Story in Ttuhiana dialect. 

Pukerani lavata. keke posana, keke tie Tasa ila pa Tomba hi 
Before hiij one name one man Tasa yo to Torah" 

hena hopere na ighana. 
catch spear the jish. 

Xgina igana makasi hena mai siramu, wagi makasi siramii hena. 
Soou jish makasi. 

Surangi pa mola ra makasi. Kohite imaisa makasi keke wo 
Pi't in canoe makasi. 

ti kaina. Vnrana mhatuna ra makasi, vura pa kolo: 

Pat up his head makasi put np f rom ocean 
Agoi sigona sa mbareka lengge tangurao, na sasi bugoro niii 
T v.-oman mine 

si agoi, kote mate mbeto puku komburu tangurao, lopu hena 
soon die altoyether children mine not yet 

khinane, kekang’gu mati. 
food dead. 

Tasa se jeama agoi. *’ Sa sejeama ni siramu wenagua ke lopu 
Tasa talk I. not 

khanikhani so komburu tamu agoi, ke kangu mate ke lopu 
food children thine not die not 

khanikhane. ’ Xjiama me tu sa Makasi. Dogoriatu hake- 
food. Talk Maka.si. 

niatu mamu kukilinia manda la ia. Dorea sa kiso meke 

Shark 

tararatanea manda vovete nia tu. Hako tararata arao kc 
hako mati angua. Arao hongga la pa kolo. 

I dire (.^) yo into ocean, 
laloa si khita sigona soku igana manda khanikhani. 

Plenty fi.sh food 



453 


jiiitlii’oiiohjgaul a Uitil Aeic Boo/.s. 

Londu sa rimata Tve ko matana sa tepi, awugo ra sa arimiata pule 
sun san return 

mai pa taui ilungeri. Nomana rani mbongi pe mai sa 
come to that Mungeri. Long day night come 

iguchu, hote mai sa ruku, kote meke paka, 

fire (lightning ?) come rain soon gun (thunder?) 
samangaru kalijerua meke kapi. Kote meke opo sa mola, 
had. Soon canoe 

meke moku. meke tunoro. meke rani ramda kiso, basietto, 
hreah shark crocodile 

mai sa Makasi. Mai wagia sa kiso sa mbatu palekia taloa 
come Makasi. Come the shark the head take 

lopii ta ndaoro. La sa mbasietto kbarettia nene kele tamoku. 
not of. Co the crocodile 

Laso meka wagi sari na limana nene. Tasa kukeli, lopu mai 

foot(?) Tasa sing out not come 
sa tie. Kobiti moku mbeto. 

a man break finish. 

Heghari sa makasi la pa kolo mandu \va lusa ia 
the Makasi go to ocean. 

Keke -wotiki mbareka lengge. Lopu mati sa komburu tamu a^oi. 
One hny (?) woman. Not die the children thine. 


Native Dyes and Methods of Dyeing in Korea. 

By E. B. M.D. 

Although it is scarcely a dozen years since Korea was first opened 
to foreign commerce, yet in that .short time native dye-stuffs have 
been almost supplanted by the cheaper and better aniline dyes. 
Few of the native dyes are now in use. and those only in the more 
remote portions of the country. Of some it is almost impossible 
to obtain specimens, and of otliei-s the diificnlty is less only because 
they are used in medicine or for other purposes than dyeing. This 
difficulty, of course, only refers to the prepared dyes, the plants 
and trees from which they arc obtained being indigenous, will 
always remain. 

I. Red Dyr-. 

1. Cha Cho^ Obtained from the roots of the 

ojficinale L. car erythrnrhizon. 

2. Hong Hwa This is the dried blossoms of the Gartha- 

iiiHs Tinctorius L. It is largely cultivated in gardens, both for its 
flowers and for its use as a dye. It dyes a bright scarlet. These 
dried blossoms are also used largely in medicine, being a favourite 
remedy for aches and pains. 

VOL. .XXVI. 2 H 



454 


Anthropologicol Miscellanea and Neiv Boolcs. 


4. Hyang II Hwa Cha [fej B ^ lit. facing the snn, seeds. 
Seeds of the sunflower. Heliantlais Annmis L. These dye a deep 
I’ed. Thi.s plant is al.so cultivated for its showy flowers as well 
as for use in medicine. The children also eat the kernels of the 
seeds, discarding the shell. The natives assert that this plant i« 
not indigenous to Korea, having been introduced from China 
.several centuries ago, but at present it is found throughout the 
penin.sula. The common name is Hai Pdeaki, i.e.. Hope in the 
sun. 

II. Brown Byes. 

4. Sang Mok Pi ^ The bark of the Quercus Sinensis. 

The common name is Sang Sii Pi. Thi.s bark dyes grey and ochre 
as well. 

5. Sony Mok Pi ^ yfc The bark of Pinvs Sinensis. 

III. Bhte T)yes. 

t). Xam Clm ^ Leaves and stems of the Pohjgonnni Tine- 
tariuiii. The common name is Jok. The colour obtained from 
this dye is dark blue. The entire plant is used. 

7. Clin Mok Wood of two species of Catalpa, the 

C. Bnugei, C. A. Mey; and C. Koempferi. S. and Z. It dyes a 
deep violet. 

8. Xaiii Mok Pi tJc The bark of the Machiliis iSanni)' 

Helms. 

9. Cheng Tui ^ |^. The stem and leaves of the Indigofera Tinr- 
toria L. This dyes a dark blue and is nsed for dyeing women's 
skirts, bed covers, and soldiers’ clothing. 

Only widows should prepare it. and until recent times only 
widows sold it, carrying it about from hotise to house. Should a 
married woman prepare it she must occapy a room separated from 
her husband until it is entirely prepared. Should a person die in 
the honse or even a corpse pass the door while it is being prepared, 
it will be u.seles.s as a dye. 

lY. Grey Dyes. 

10. Charcoal made from bamboo wood. 

11. Charcoal obtained by burning the Bottle (lonrd, Lagennria 
Vidgaris L. 

V. Yellow Byes. 

12. Koi Hwa ^ The blossoms of Sophora Japonica L. 

13. Oi Chn .Seed pods of tbe Gardenia Florida L. Tlii.-' 

IS found in great quantities on the island of Quaelpart. In other 
parts of Korea it is not found growing wild but is largely culti- 
vated. In the northei-n part of the penin.sula it must be potted 
and kept in the house during the winter. Under these cii’cum- 
stances, therefore, it can only be grown for its beauty. Tbe seed 
pods are .strung up, one hnndred on a string, and these are seen 



Anthropological Miscellanea, and New Bools. 


455 


hanging in the shops, from wbieli strings a number are cut for 
purchasers. They sell six pods for twenty-fire cash, that is about 
a farthing. These seed pods are also largely used in medicine. 

14. VlKeuui The fruit of Curcuma Longa B. car Macrop- 

plajlla Mig. 

15. Hwang Paik Pi M Bark of the Phellodendron 

^htiurwdse. 

16. Hwang Keurn ^ This is obtained from two species of 
Scittellariic., the S. Macrnutka Fisdi. and ,S. Visciduloi Bge. 

VI. Black Dyes. 

17. Pang Mok ||[ Cnmmon name Sin Xa Mu. This is 

the wood of Liquidambac Foriiiosana Hce. 

18. Common writing ink, which is as in China and Japan, India 
ink. This is ground up into powder and mixed with water and 
thus used as a dye. No reagent is u.sed for fixing the colour. 
'I’his is not a commonly used dye, as if the material becomes wet 
or damp, the colour comes out and stains under-clothing as well 
as the body. For dyeing black, therefore. No. 17 is chiefly used. 

VII. Auxiliaries ^(sed in jiHng dyes. 

19. Oh Pni Clut S. fu Nntgalls found on the Rliui Seinia- 
lata Murr. These ore found chiefly in the province of Kang Won, 
and are chiefly used for fixing dark colours, such as blue or purple. 

20. OliMi Ci“anberries, or the fruit of ScJiizandra 

Chineush Baill. These are found growing wild in the north- 
eastern part of the peninsula and up as far north as Vladivostock, 
in Siberia. The fruit is dried and is used chiefly in fixing red 
dyes. The fruit is also a favouiite remedy for certain diseases. 
As an aid in fixing colours it is not in very common use outside of 
the districts where it is indigenous. 

21. Paik Pan Alum. This is the most commonly used 

of all the agents for fixing dye.s. It is also used largely in medi- 
cine. It is imported from China. It is not indigenous to Korea. 

22. Kon Keurn Ferri Sulphas. This agent is used only 

for black or very dark dye.s. 

23. Vinegar. This is very rarely used, not being nearly so 
efficacious as the other reagents. 

Paints and Painting in Korea. 

Paints unlike dyes have not been so universally replaced by 
those of foreign manufacture. The p.aints are all sold in powder, 
and to get them ready for use glue is added as well as water. 
This glue is made by boiling ox-htdes in water for some time, and 
then allowing it to cool. 

I. Yon Chi ^ Hg. A red paint made from Hibiscus Itosa- 
Sinensis. It i.s also u.sed as a paint for the cheeks and lips of 
women (chiefly prostitutes) and children. 

2 H 2 



456 


I'opohjfjiCf^l MiscdJff iv JJuou^. 

II. P;w-„ #. A white paint obtained fi-oni the Mi/'iihili-. DicJr,- 
tvui’'. The ;-eed> of tlnA plant are boiled, which causes the shelN 
to inir.'t. They are then diied and the shells di.scanled. The 
inner body of the seed is then made into a cake with the aid of 
tvater. This is also used for powderins' the face of g-irls anl 
children. (' IlWe ” Paiiitino- and Tattoointj,’’ ) 

III. -IPA Black paint which is the ordinary ink of the 

peiisman. and of which there are many kinds varrino; in pirice fr';!i. 
a farthins a piece to a shilling'. 

IV. 17, a tn- V ermiliou paint which i- a native red 

snlphurtt of mercnrv. This is simply mixed with glue as above. 

V. C]ta,i'i Tan it A vermilion or scarlet paint is red 

oxide of lead 

VI. Hiraug Tan .A reddish paint Lithargn. 

A II. Suk Hwang ^ A yellow paint which is the yellow 
.sulphuret of arsenic or orpiinent. This sub'-tance is all brouahc 
from China. 

VIII. Sam X<'k. A green paint, f'lipri Snharefus or VendigiS. 
This is made from copper. 

IX Sol Kan Chit 5 Rg A reddi.sli paint. This is made 
from refuse sulphur. It is taken and roastedi over the fire, 

X. II Ch'jiig. I L'hdng. Sam Chouj — and ^ 

This is prepared from Luligofnra Tinctoria L. Tlie^p three kinds 
of paint are three different shades of bine. H W being the 
darkest. 

Over and above these ten varietie.s of ])aiut there are a ninuLcr 
which are imported from China. These I hare not attempted to 
describe as they are not indigenous. 

These paints are used only by the common people for paintinu 
screens and panels, the painting of their dwellings being forbidden. 
According to Korean law no buildings can he painted save the 
Palace and the official residences of the District officials. To tips 
must be added Buddhist temples or rather the buildings wli'cli 
contain images of Buddhist saints. Tho.se apartments occupied 
by the monks cannot be .so decorated. 

Painting and Decorating of the Body. 

I. Tattooing is not practised in Korea. 

II. The Aloxa is often applitd over the anterior foiitaiiellc oi 
children. By means of thi.s a small space i.s burnt about as laigt 
as a farthing. This is for the prevention of convulsions, a coranioii 
eau.se of death amongst children in Korea. It is more common in 
the two north-western provinces than in other pans of Korea, 

III. Over the anterior fontaneils of children is also applied 
cinnabar. Ihi.s is for preventing evil humours from entering the 
child s skull and so causing sickness and death. Cinnabar is 
supposed to jjossess mii’aculous powers over demons, as well as 
evil influences of all kinds. The most efficacious charms are 



457 


Aiithropolofjical Mi>xdlanca and N'ev: Boohs. 

AM-itten with cinnabar, and it is one of the necessary ingredients 
of all medicines used for the prolongation of life. The same belief 
is held in China, and there i.s very little doubt but that it came to 
Korea from China. 

IV. The lips and cheeks of prostitnte.s and children are reddened. 
This is done with Hibigrns BoM-Sintiisia. 

V. Pow dering the face. This is done with a powder made from 
the seeds of Mirahilis Bicltutoma. The covering of the seeds is 
discarded and the inside alone is used. For the method of 
preparation for the market see Paints and Painting.” In apply- 
ing it to the face, a portion of the cake is reduced to powder and 
mixed with a little water and so applied. It is used by women 
and children. 

VI. The temple.s and back of the head are also daubed with 
.safflower. The root of -Icortej Calamus is taken and cut into two. 
One of the.se cut portion.s is then dipped into safflower and a 
daub is made on each of the temples and on the occiput. This is 
applied only to children, and is supposed to keen away demons. 

VII. Staining of the finger nails. 

Girls stain their finger nails by petals of liupntitns. The thumb 
and inde.x finger nads are not stained, only the three remaining 
ones, or sometimes only the nails of the ring and little fingers. 

Sometimes married women and little boys stain their nails in 
the same way. but as a rule it is only confined to girls. The 
•origin of the custom is attributed to Tang Kwei-fei (the all- 
powerful favourite of Ming Hwang, one of the Emperors of the 
Tang Dyna.sty in China, a.p. 745), who had a deformed nail and 
to cover this deformity she stained it. The origin of the wearing 
of finger-rings in Korea is also attributed to this .same person, who 
wore them in order to hide a blemish on her hand. 

The Palaeolithic Deposits at Hitchin and their relation to 
the Glacial Epoch. By Clement Reid, F.L.S., F.G.S., of 
the Geological .Survey. '' Pioc. Koval Soc.,” vol. Ixi, Xo. 869 
(March 26. 1897). 

In the Journal of this Institute fm- February, 1897, p. 305, there 
is a notice of the Report of a British Association Committee 
appointed •' with the object of clearing up certain doubtful points 
as to the relation of Palaeolithic man to the Glacial Epoch.” 
Ho.xne was selected as the best place for the investigation, and the 
results obtained there made it desirable to ascertain whether the 
conclusions thence derived would receive suppoit from a similar 
exploration at Hitchin, where Paheolithic implements have fre- 
quently been found. Accordingly, at the instance of Sir Archi- 
bald Geikie. a grant of £50 was obtained from the Roval Society 
for that purpo.se, .and Mr. Clement Reid, who was manager of the 
Hoxne exploration, was placed in charge of the investigation at 
Hitchin. 

At Hitchin boring was much hindered by the ” coarse, loose and 



458 Antlirojiolo'jiml MisccUmiea add Krw Boohs. 

watery cliaracter of the strata,” which caused the abandonment of 
borinss throuorh the closing’ in of theii' sides. Attention 
mainly directed to the relations of the Chalky Boulder Clay to 
the Palfeolithic loams, borings being made in the pits out of which 
implements had been dug. Only one boring pa.ssed through 
undoubted Boulder Clay, though in another bcrehole "some blue 
chalky clay” was penetrated, and in a third derivative fossih 
from the Boulder Clay were found in the lower part of the old 
alluvium. The section in which Boulder Clay was found is here 
given. 

ft. in. 

Palffiolithic . . Yellow brickearth and small stone.s . , 14 6 

Ancient allu- f Yellow and white marl and silt. , . . 2 0 

vium . . I Yellow loam and small chalk pebbles . . 0 6 

fChalky Boulder Clay 9 0 

( Loamy chalky gravel (base of Boulder 
Glacial . . Clay) . . , . , . . , . . 2 0 

i Giavelly sand (boring stopped by large 

stones) . . . . . . . . . . 8 0 


86 0 

The high level at which Chalkj- Boulder Clay was found, and it.s 
absence, or representation by material derived from it, at lower 
levels, in borings nearer the centre of the channel, suggests to Mr. 
Reid that *■ the channel was, to a large extent, excavated, or re- 
excavated after the deposition of the boulder clay, as was the case 
at Hoxne.” 

The ancient river alluvium is entirely overlapped and hidden 
by the overlying Palfeolithic brickearth. The trend of the buried 
channel appears to be from south to north, and runs parallel to 
the course of existing streams. The stony brickearth yielded 
scarcely anything but Palaeolithic implements, and the ancient 
alluvial deposits below, though full of plants and shells, were 
without any trace of man. The mammalian remains all came 
from the whitish marl and silt immediatelv below the Palfeolithic 
brickearth. They consisted of TJrsus ; Equns caballus, Linn.-, 
Rhinoceros ; Hippopotamus (a wateiuvorn bone) ; Cervus elaphus. 
Liiai. ; Elephas primigenins, Blnmb. 

Mr. Reid notices the very striking general resemblance between 
the beds examined at Hoxne and those at Hitchin. On attempt- 
ing' to correlate them, ho’wever, the bed with arctic leaves, con- 
spicuovrs at Hoxne, is found to be absent at Hitchin. He adds. 

At each locality the same story is told. Some time after the 
passing away of the ice the land .stood higher than now, so that 
the streams had a greater fall and valleys were cut to a .somewhat 
gi’eater depth. Then the land sank and the valleys became silted 
up with layer after layer of alluvium, to a depth of at least 30 
feet, the climate remaining temperate. The next stage, when an 
arctic flora reappeared, is only represented at Hoxne. The third 



45 » 


Anthropological MibCcUanca, and Kev: Boohs. 

•stage in the infilling of the valleys is shown in the curious un- 
stratified decalcified brickearth with scattered stones and palseo- 
lithic implements, identical in chaiacter at Hitchin, Hoxne, 
Fisherton and other localities, which irresistibly suggests a mingling 
of wind-transported material and raiuwash.” 

A full list of the fossil remains found and the details of the 
various borings made are given. 

T. V. Hor.Jiis. 


“ Secwana Dictionary.” English - Seewana and Secwana- 
English. Compiled by John Brown. Printed for the London 
Missionary Society by Butler and Tanner, Frome and London, 
1895. Sm. 8vo., 466 pp. 

This is a new edition of a volume which originally appeared 
nearly tweut}- years ago, and will prove exceedingly useful to 
those who are brought into contact with the native races of South 
Africa. The language (commonly called the Sechwana) is that 
spoken by the Ba-tlhaping tribe in Bechwana-land, and is gener- 
ally understood by the Bechnana tribes in the Transvaal and in 
the regions between the Transvaal and Kalahari Desert. Tt is 
the most important member of the Central Sub-Branch of the 
Southern division of the gi-eat Bantu linguistic family, the Zulu 
and Kafir representing the Eastern, and the Herero of Damara- 
land the Western Sub-Biunches of the same division. The 
Bechwana nation are rapidly being brought under the influences 
of civilization, and three of the chiefs, Khama, Bathoen, and 
Sebele visited England in 1895 in order to obtain help in various 
enterprises for the benefit of the people. Mr. Brown gives some 
“ Hints to learners of Secwana ” as an introduction to the dic- 
tionary. These comprise in the simplest possible form the nece.s- 
sary grammatical elements for the formation of simple sentences 
and phrases in the language. The book is well printed, of a 
convenient size, and has rounded corners for carrying in the 
pocket. 

S. H. R.rv. 

The American Anthropologist. Vol. ix, No. 1-2. “Ornitho- 
logical Vocabulary of the Moki Indians,” by Dr. Edgar Mearns, 
IJ.S.A. (illustr-ated) ; “Stone Images from Mounds and Ancient 
Graves,” by Cyrus Thomas (illustrated) ; “ The Vigesimal System 
of Enumeration,” by Cyrus Thomas ; “ Australian Class Systems,’" 
by R. H. Mathews. 

The Australasian Anthropological Journal. No. 3, 

February. “ Drawings and Carvings of the Australian Blacks,” 
“ Information about Australian Tribes,” “ Marked Trees of a 
Bora Ground and their Meanings,” “ Message Sticks ” {continued'), 
“ Myth of Australia,” “ Thowra and the Seven Myells,” “ Songs 
by Australian Blacks,” “ The Month’s Proceedings of the Anthro- 



460 


A jUhi'OjJologicid Miscellanea and JVew Bool'S. 


pological Society.'' “• The Ethnology of Australian Blacks,'’ ■■ The 
Red Species of Mankind,” “Travelling Teeth,” "An Aboriginal 
Custom.'' 

Madras Govemment Museum, Anthropology, Bulletin. 

Yol. ii, Xo. 1. " Badagas of the Xilgiris,” ” Irulas of the 
Xilgiris Paniyans of Mal.abar," “ A CTiinese-Tamil Cross.” “ A 
Cberiinian Skull.'' “ Kiirnh.i or Kurumba.'' 



INDEX 


A. 

Aboriginal GroUlsmitlis’ work in . 

Columbia, 294. 

Aghori Fakir, life bistorj- of, 340. 
American Anthropologist (rer.), 79, ' 

207, 307, 459. 

American Antiquarian (rei'.), 208, 307. i 
Am erican Journal of PsTchologr, Vol. 

■riii, Xo. 3 (ret-.), 80, 207. 

Ancient bow and arrows, Assyrian, 
210. ‘ I 

Andamanese, notes on the, 29, 81. ■ 

Anuirersarv Meeting, 413. 
Anthropological Miscellanea, 67, 202. . 
294, 433. 

Anthropologie (L’) (rev.), SO. 

Antichrist legend (rev.), 207. 
Antropometria Militare. Dr. Kidolto ■ 
Livi (rev.), 73. 

Asiatic Society of Japan, transactions 
(rev.), 80. 

Atkinson, J. J., ancient drill for stone ■ 
axes. 433. 

Australasian Anthropological .Tournal, 
Vol, ix, Xo. 12 (rev ), 459. 

Australian shields, 153. 

B. ; 
Balfour, H.. 33; ancient bow and 

arrows, Assyrian, 210 ; life history . 
of Aghori Fakir, 340. I 

Bangay, B., 209. 

Batak creation legend, 81, 103. 

Benhara, Marian 8.. Henry Callaway, j 
First Bishop of Kaffraria (rev.), 79. i 
Bevan, Key. J. O., skull found near , 
Hereford, and knife found near 
Berwick, Sussex, 1. 

Blundell, H. Weld, 221. ' 

Borneo, unusual forms of burial by I 
people of the east coast of, 33. ' ■ 

Brabrook, E. W., 1, 13, 29, 31, 81, ■ 
109, 209, 221, 254, 309. 113. Anni- ! 
yersary Address, 416. ' 

Brandon, Suffolk. Skulls discovered at , 
113. 

Brinton, Daniel G-., On the Oldest I 
Stone Implements in the Eastern 
Fnited States, 59; Myths of the ' 
Xew World (rev.), 305. 


British Association, Lirerpool. Eehi- 
tion of Palaeolithic Man to Glacial 
Epoch (rev.). 305. 

Bronze, Transition from Conner to 
309. 

Brown, Dr. Eobert. death of. 109. 

Buddhist Praying Wheel (rev.), 305 

Burbling of the Wiradthuri Tribes 
(Part II), 272. 

Bumard, R., 221. 

Butler, Gen. Sir W. F. The Wild 
North Land (rer.). 79. 

C. 

Callaway, Henry,, M.D., D.D.. First 
Bishop of Kaffraria (rev.), 79 

Chamberlain, Basil Hall. Preliiiinarv 
Xotice of the Luchnan Languaire 

47. B 1 

Chauler. William Astor. Jungle and 
Desert (rev.), 77. 

Chin Hills, The. A history of the 
People (rev.). 205. 

Cleghorn. J., resignation of, 209. 

Codrington, Eev. E, H , D.D. Diction- 
ary ot Mota (rev.), 301. 

Coles, J., resignation of, 209. 

Connolly. Dr. E. M. Social Life in 
lanti-lanH, 113, 221. 

Copper, transition from use of, to that 
of bronze, 309. 

Corea, Natire Dyes and Methods of 
Dyeing in, 453. 

Corroborec music from Queensland. 

43.5. 

Cranial eharacteristies of the Soutli 
Saxons, etc.. 81. 82. 

Crcagh, C. V., Fnu.sual forms of 
burial by people of the east coast of 
Borneo, 33. 

Cast, Miss M. E. Tere. election of, 1. 


D. 

Dalton. O. M., Honorary Secretary, 
fieport of Council for 1896, 415. ' 
Doubleday. G. A., retirement of from 
Assistant Seci-etary, 415. 

Down, Dr. J. H. Langdou, death of 
209. 

Drill, aent. for stone axes, 433. 



ixriEx. 


-to. 


i'uekn ortii, \V. La iriiiot Ileiiry. 
SkulU from lladagasear in Cam- 
bridge iinreuni. 2^3. 

E. 

Kdge-Pariingtoa. Jame?. eoiToboree 
niusi ■. 4 '.j5. 

Elliott. K.. Id. 

Ktliei'ijgo. E.. iui:.. Au-tralian UiLeUl-. 
^]53. 

IttaTiorrapLie.tl in Xeiv Cdetirgia. 

F. 

Fanti-land, rocial life in. 11.3. 

Fan-eett. F.. rock-eut sepuleln-al eliaiu- 
ber' in iLilab.ir, :19. 

Field Col'iiubian ilu»eum, Antliro- 
pologieal Series. Tol. i. No. 1 (rer.'i. 
80. " 

Flower, Sir W. H., Moriori skull, 
notes on, iOo. 

Franks, .Sir A. 'Wollaston. Moriori 
skull jiresente 1 to Briiisli llusoum 
by. 29 . a. 

G-. 

tfarsou, Dr, J. G-., SI. 

( riddings, F. H . an analysis of tlio 
pUenoinona of association, and of 
Sooiiil Organisation (/-er.), 75. 

(-sla Istone. Dr. J. H.. transition from 
ns,' of copper to bronze, 300. 
frodden. iliss G-. O-f,, 100; Xiiga tribes. 
161. 

Oowlaurl, W„ 3.3, 300. 

H. 

Hale. Hui'.itio. Four Huron Wam- 
pum Record, s, 221. 

iiiglilands of Western Japan, super- 
stitions and customs of, 20. 

Hitchin. Paleolithic Deposits at (rer.), 
lo I . 

H, limes. T, T., Relation of Palteolithic 
-Man to CTlaci.al Epueli frer 1. 30.5; 
PaUeolithic Deposits at Hitchin 
(rec,), 157. 

Horton-Smith, R. J.. cranial cliarac- 
teristies of South Saxons, etc., 81, 
82. 

H, marth, O. H., Asiatic element of 
the tribes of Southern Mexico, 32. 
ifowortli, Sir Henry, 33. 

Huron wampum records, 221. 

,T. 

Jerons, F. B., Introduction to histoiw 
of religion (rer.), 303. 


Journal of Mental .SeieriLC (re''.), 208. 
Jungle and Desert. Eastern .ifrica 
(rrr, I. 77. 

K. 

Keane, A. H,. Autropometria Milirai'c 
(rec.'. 73. 

Keene, Captain T.. tleath of, SI. 
Keeparra Ceremonr of Initiation. 32 't 
Keith. A , 221. 

L. 

Landis, E, B,. Native dyes in Corea, 
453. 

Lawes, Rev. W. CL, Gnmimar ot 
Motu (New Cruinea) (ret'.), 303. 
LewL, A. L., 12, 413. 

Ltieliuan Language, preliminary no- 
tice of, 47. 

M. 

Madras Government Museum, .Inthro- 
pology, Tol. ii, No 1, 460. 

Mukura. vceabiilary and grammatical 
notes, 67 

Malabar, rock-cut sepulchral chambers 
in, 29. 

.\fancala board from Nvassaland. 209. 
Marett, R. R., 31. 

Maslionaland, notes on ruined temples 
in, 2. 

Mathews, R, H, Keeparra ceremony 
of initiation, 320. 

Mathews. R. H , 221 : the Burbling of 
the 'VViracIthuri Tribes (Part II), 
272. 

Meetings, ordinary, 1. 29, 31. SI, 109. 
2(19, 221, 254-, 309; Annual G-eneral. 
413. 

MoiiteliU':. Di*. Oscar, the Tyrrhenians 
ill Greece and Italy, 2o4 ; pre- 
elassieal chronology in Greece and 
Italy, 261. 

i lloriori skull, present t^ British Mu- 
seum by Sir A. W. Franks, 295. 
Motu (Banks’ Islands), Dictionary of 
; {ret'.), 301. 

! 3[ota (Xeiv Guinea), Grammar anO 
i Vocabulary (rer.), 303. 

; 3[yers, C. S., skulls discoTcred at 
j Brandon. Suffolk, 113. 
j ^[yres, J. L., 309. 
j Myths of the Xew World (rer.), 305. 

jy. 

^aga Tribes, by Miss G. M. Godden, 

m. 

New Georgia, Solomon Islands, vo- 
cabulary of, 202. 



IN’UEIX. 


46 :; 


o. 

O'llcers for 1897. 432. 

P. 

Puniaotuan Dictiouayy {i'er.)y 204. 
Perak, cave dwellers of, 36. 

Peruvian "va^e in Britisli Museum, 
434. 

Pleyte, C. M., aBatak creation legend, 
81, 103. 

Portmau, M. V., notes on the Anda- 
manese, 29, 81. 

Praetorius, C. J., 13. 

Pre-clnssical chronology in Greece 
and Italy, 261. 

Prestwich. Sir J., death of, 209. 
PuPord, A . death of, 209. 

R. 

Kay. Sidney H., songs and specimens 
of language in "Xew Georgia, 436; 
Tocabulavy of Makura language, 
Central New Hebrides, 67: the 
Chin Hills (rer.), 205 ; Secwana 
Dictionary (rer.), 459. 

Read, C. H',33. 110, 210; Aboriginal 
goldsmiths' work in Columbia, 294 ; 
Peruvian vase, 434. 

Reid, Clement, pal:eolithic deposits at 

(j'ey.), 457. 

Religion, introduction to hi>iory ot 
303. 

Revue ^Mensuelle de P ficole d’Antbro- 
pologie de Pa^i^, Ann. VI, Nos. 1-4 
80. 

Ricketts, 0. F.. 1. 

Robley, Alaj.-Gen., baked heads of 
dlaoiis, 110. 

Roth, Henry Ping, Sarawak and 
A’orth Borneo {I'ec.), 299. 

8. 

Sarawak and Briti>lx North Borneo 
(rev.), 299. 

Sclator, P. L.. mancala board from 
Nyassaland. 209. 

Seton-Karr,4V. iI..'-tox5e age in Svmiali- 
land, 2, 65, 81, 109. 

.Slians and hill tribes on the Alekone, 
13. 

8ignaletic instructions, Alphonse Ber- 
tillon (reo.), 296. 

Simpson, William, Buddhist Praying 
Wheel (rer.), 305. 


Skulls from Aladagascar in Cambridge 
Alusemn. 2S5. 

Smith. I. J., 209. 

Smith, Wilberforee, death of, 81. 
Sociology, An Analysis of the Phe- 
nomena of Association, and of 
Social Organisation (rcr.), 75. 
Somerville. B. T., songs from New 
Georg^, 4 15 ; ethnographical notes 
in New Georgia, 357. 

Somerville, Lieuts. B. T., and S. C. 
Wcigall, R N., Vocabulary of Dia- 
lects used in New Georgia (rev.). 
202 . 

Songs and specimens of language, New 
Georgia, 436. 

Southern Alexico, Asiatic element of 
the tribes of, 32. 

Stone age in Somali-land, 2. 65, 81. 
109. 

Swan, Robert M. W., notes on ruined 
temples in Alashonaland, 2. 

T. 

Thomson, Arthur, Signaletic lustruc- 
tious (r^r.), 296. 

Treasurer’s Report for 1896, 413. 
Tyler. J. M., Whence aud Whither of 
Man {rev.), 300. 

Tylor, Prof, R. B., 32, 221. 

Tyrrhonians in Greece and Italy. 254. 

W. 

Wjuupiuu. four Huron records, 221. 
Web ster, J. .1.. appointment of as 
As-^htaut Secretary, 415. 

Weigall, Lieutenants S. C . and B. T. 
Somcrvilio, Vocabulary of Dialects 
u>ed in New Geor;;ia free.), 202. 
Woston, Rev. 4Valter. AI.A., customs 
and superstitions in the highlands 
of Central Japan, 29. 

Whence uiul Whither of Alan (rer.), 
3(X). 

Wild North Land. North America 
O-fi-.), 70. 

Wilkin>, Mrs. R. F.. 221. 

Woovhijorpe, Col. K. G.. C.B., R.F.. 
account of Shans and hill tribes of 
States on the Mekong. 13. 

Wray. L , jiui., Cave Dweller^ cf 
Perak, .36. 

Z. 

Zimbabwe, in Alashonaland, 2. 



LAN I -ON • 

HAREHOV A^D SONS. PRINTERS IN OHDINARV TO HER MAJESTY, 

ST. martin's lane. 




•c. 











y.i' 






GOVT. OVIMKA 


NEWDELHL 


;v4.’ ' 


. K'-iV . 


. h . '-y. 

'••ih/' V, 


»* t» laeep tfiiA Ih9<dc ^ 

ClMUEL ■ ■ 


fck. i4a.ibittM.